Please read the abstract in the 00front of this document. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Economics / unrestricted

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Bionomics of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) is a complex phenomenon that involves understanding the ecology of arthropod borne pathogens and vertebrate hosts potentially involved in their transmission cycles. Investigations into the bionomics of viral and bacterial VBPs circulating in Baringo and Homa Bay Counties of Kenya were carried out. Specifically, vertebrate hosts represented in mosquito bloodmeals, presence of arboviruses in blood fed mosquitoes and patients presenting with acute undiagnosed febrile illnesses in rural health facilities, and tick borne pathogens (TBPs) diversity in ticks of animals were identified. Mosquitoes were trapped by BG sentinel and CDC light traps, while ticks were sampled directly from domestic animals and tortoises close to human habitation along the shores and adjacent islands of Lakes Victoria and Baringo in Kenya. Blood and sera were also sampled from patients presenting with acute febrile illnesses visiting four rural health facilities in Homa Bay County. Mosquitoes and ticks were sorted and identified to species using standard morphological taxonomic keys. All the biological samples (blood-fed mosquitoes, ticks and blood/sera) were processed using molecular and culture procedures for detection of VBPs (arboviruses, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, Rickettsia and protozoa). Among 445 blood-fed Aedeomyia, Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Mansonia, and Mimomyia mosquitoes, 33 bloodmeal hosts were identified including humans, eight domestic animal species, six peridomestic animal species and 18 wildlife species. Further detection of Sindbis and Bunyamwera viruses was done on blood-fed mosquito homogenates by Vero cell culture and RTPCR in Culex, Aedeomyia, Anopheles and Mansonia mosquitoes from Baringo that had fed on humans and livestock. In TBPs assay, 585 tick pools were analysed consisting of 4,126 ticks collected in both study areas. More ticks were sampled in Baringo (80.5%), compared to Homa Bay (19.5%). In Baringo, agents of ehrlichiosis were detected from Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks including Ehrlichia ruminantium (12.3%), Ehrichia canis (10.5%) and Paracoccus sp. (4.4%). Agents of anaplasmosis included Anaplasma ovis (7.2%), Anaplasma platys (4.4%) and Anaplasma bovis (4.0%), all from Hyalomma, Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks, as well as agents of rickettsiosis, including Rickettsia africae, Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Rickettsia rhipicephali, Rickettsia montanensis and a Rickettsia sp. that was not conclusively characterized. Babesia caballi, Theileria sp. and Hepatozoon fitzsimonsi were also detected from both Rhipicephalus ticks and Amblyomma ticks. In Homa Bay, Ehrichia ruminantium (17.5%) and Ehrichia canis (9.3%) were isolated from Amblyomma latum and Rhipicephalus pulchellus, as well as Anaplasma platys (14.4%) and Anaplasma ovis (14.4%) from Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus species. In determination of the occurrence of arboviruses among patients presenting with acute febrile illnesses, acute Bunyamwera 3 (0.9%) and Sindbis 2 (0.6%) infections were detected by RT-PCR and cell culture and Sindbis seroprevalence was determined by plaque assay. Though a significant proportion of these patients tested positive for low Plasmodium parasitemia, none were co-infected with Plasmodium parasites and arboviruses. This study highlights the presence and relative importance of zoonotic VBPs in both study areas.

Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the developing world have over the years attracted and received billions of US dollars (valued at over US$4 billion annually worldwide) in subsidies and concessionary funds. These subsidies are used to capitalize, promote growth, and help improve efficiency, operations and performance of newly established MFIs. At face value these interventions seem positive, yet studies have shown that they can be counterproductive in terms of their effect on the performance, efficiency and self-sustainability of the MFIs. This research addresses this issue by identifying four determinants of MFI’s performance and analysing the effect that subsidies have on them. A quantitative approach was used in the analysis in which the financial data of 92 MFIs were estimated using panel data estimation. The method of variable selection was based on the procedure used by Nawaz (2010). This method of determining the relationship between selected performance and sustainability indicators and subsidy was modelled on the Subsidy Dependant Index (SDI) method of analysis developed by Yaron (1992a) and the Return on Asset (ROA), Operational Self-Sufficiency (OSS) and Financial Self-Sufficiency (FSS) methods of analysis developed by the SEEP Network (2005). The summary results of the analysis showed that the majority of MFIs (90.22%) were not sustainable nor were they found to be profitable. However, the results show that all the institutions were operationally self-sufficient and that, on average, MFIs in SSA charged higher interest rates than MFIs in other parts of the world. The average OSS was 136.01% showing that MFIs are operationally self-sufficient. However, the average FSS value was 74.32% reflecting that the MFIs are not able to raise enough revenue to cover their capital and indirect costs which would ultimately result in them running out of equity funds. The inclusion of subsidies in the sustainability regressions resulted in a decline in the ability of the MFIs to attain operational and financial self-sufficiency, thus showing the negative effect subsidies have on the sustainability of MFIs. Inflation and interest rates charged on loans also had a negative effect on sustainability as they resulted in an increase in costs and a decline in the number of low income clients. MFIs located in wealthier countries were found to be more efficient because of the lower costs associated with having wealthier clients who have larger loan sizes. MFIs in lower income countries have to overcome limitations of weak infrastructures, low population densities and rural markets which increase operating costs. Older institutions were found to more likely be sustainable than new and young MFIs as expected because of their improved efficiency and productivity and also because they have more experience and are therefore better equipped to overcome challenges. However, by adding subsidy in the analysis the results show that the level of efficiency of MFIs is reduced. The results also show that with increased maturity MFIs are found to be more productive, however, when subsidies are included in the finances the levels of productivity will decline as costs increase. NBFIs are the most suitable business model to practice in MFIs in Africa according to the findings which reflect that NBFIs are more profitable and efficient than any of the other business models in the sample. However, cooperatives were found to be the most productive business model as they have a stronger borrower to staff ratio than the other institutional types. Furthermore, cooperatives and NBFIs tend to have clients who are better off and therefore can afford to take larger sized loans, unlike clients of NGOs who are poor who struggle to have a stable income. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Gender inequalities are still widely pervasive and deeply institutionalised, particularly in Africa, where the burden of disease is highly gendered. The public health sector has been slow in responding to and addressing gender as a determinant of health. The purpose of this inquiry was to gain a deeper insight into the different ways in which gender was represented in the public health curriculum in sub-Saharan Africa. A qualitative inquiry was undertaken on gender in the curriculum in nine autonomous schools of public health in sub-Saharan Africa. Official curriculum documents were analysed and in-depth interviews were held with fourteen staff members of two schools that served as case studies. A content analysis of the data was carried out, followed by discourse analysis. A poststructuralist theoretical framework was used as the ‘lens’ for interpreting the findings. Most of the official curricula were ‘layered’, with gender not appearing on the surface. Gender was represented mainly as an implicit discourse and appeared explicitly in only one core course and a few elective modules. The overwhelmingly dominant discourse in the official curricula was the ‘woman’ discourse, with a strong emphasis on the reproductive and maternal roles of women, while discourses on men, sexuality and power relations seemed to be marginalised. Gender discourses that emerged from the in-depth interviews with participants were lodged in biological, social and academic discourses on gender. The dominant discourses revolved around sexual difference and role differences based on sex. Participants drew on societal discourses (family, culture and religion), academic discourses and their lived experiences to explain their understandings of gender. Their narratives on the teaching of gender showed that gender was not taught or received a low priority and that it was insufficiently addressed in the public health curriculum. Barriers to teaching gender were: lack of knowledge, resources and commitment; resistance; and competing priorities. From this study it emerged that curriculum and the production of gender knowledge are sites of struggle that result in multiple understandings of gender that are manifest in dominant and marginalised discourses. Prevailing institutional power relations mirror dominant societal and political discourses that have a fundamental effect on curriculum decisions and resource allocations. This interplay between dominant discourses and power relations, underpinned by a strong biomedical paradigm, could explain the positioning of gender as an implicit representation in the curriculum, with a more explicit focus on gender in the elective modules than in the compulsory or core courses. Being implicitly represented, gender does not compete with other priorities for additional resources. It is recommended that the public health curriculum be reconceptualised by: accommodating multiple understandings of gender; questioning constructed dominant gender discourses; considering broader, varied and complex social, cultural, economic, historical and political contexts in which gender is constructed and experienced; and moving from curriculum technicalities to understanding the curriculum as a process and not a product. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / School of Health Systems and Public Health (SHSPH) / Unrestricted

Growth and development in the context of climate change and environmental challengesare issues of increasing importance in the economic debate. With higher levels of greenhousegases in the atmosphere, droughts and other forms of extreme weather are expected to increasein frequency. Some of the worst affected are people living in sub-Saharan African countries. However, there are literature showing that countries who diversify their production becomesmore resilient against negative shocks. This study aims to determine the relationship betweenprecipitation anomalies and GDP per capita growth under different levels of concentrationof the export portfolio, in order to understand what kind of diversification reduces economicrisks connected to precipitation. Precipitation anomalies, such as abnormally heavy rainfallor droughts, is seen as a good measurement for climate change, and can thus be treated aseconomic shocks. We are using data on export product shares and monthly precipitation todetermine whether the level of sectoral diversification in exports affects the influence precipitation anomalies have on GDP per capita growth. The effects are estimated using a two-stageleast squares model, only targeting countries in SSA for our estimations. The results show thatpositive weather anomalies correlate with lower levels of GDP per capita growth. But the samenegative trend cannot be seen for negative precipitation anomalies. The results also show thatthe level of diversification within exports does not have any significant effect on the influencethat precipitation anomalies have on GDP per capita growth.

This study investigates the relationship between official development assistance (ODA) and human development indicators (HDIs) in 49 sub-Saharan African countries over the period of 1995 to 2017 using 3-stage least squares (3SLS). The four key sub-classes of HDIs considered for this research include education, health, government and civic society, as well as environmental indicators. Of all these HDIs, the results of the analysis show that health aid is the most effective form of aid, significantly reducing the incidence of HIV, the infant mortality rate and the maternal mortality rate, as well as leading to improved life expectancy. Education aid has a significant effect on the progression to secondary school followed by adult literacy rates. Government and civil society aid significantly affects the ability of girls to access education at primary, secondary and tertiary levels while environmental aid is found to increase the carbon efficiency of production. Hence, this study demonstrates that aid is most effective on the health, education and environmental human development indicators.

Cervical cancer rates in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are amongst the highest in the world. The World Health Organization currently estimates that worldwide, cervical cancer will kill more than 443,000 women per year by 2030, of which 90% of deaths are predicted to occur in SSA. The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine provides primary protection against the most common cancer-causing strains of HPV that are responsible for cervical cancer. Over the last five years, there has been a slow increase in the number of African countries that have introduced the HPV vaccine via demonstration and pilot projects, and a minority of African countries that have incorporated the HPV vaccine into their National Immunisation Programmes. As part of this systematic review, a literature review was conducted and revealed that research has been conducted on top-down barriers and facilitators to HPV vaccine uptake and have found that poor health system capabilities, inaccessibility to medical care, low cervical cancer screening levels, inadequate infrastructure, finances, and health worker training are significant systemic barriers to HPV vaccination success in SSA. Little research has been conducted on demand-side or end-user perspectives of, and decisions around, the HPV vaccine. In order to complement existing research, and inform current and future implementation approaches, this qualitative systematic review explored stakeholder understandings of the HPV vaccine in SSA. This review searched the following databases: Embase (via Scopus), Scopus, MEDLINE (via PubMed), PubMed, EBSCOhost, Academic Search Premier, Africa-Wide Information, CINAHL, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, SocINDEX, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials (CENTRAL) and found a total of 259 articles. Of these, 31 articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria and were included in the review. Braun and Clarke’s six step process for conducting a thematic analysis was used for analysis and studies were assessed for quality using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist. Three major themes emerged from the thematic analysis: knowledge is intertwined with misinformation; fear shapes contradictory perceptions about the HPV vaccine; and social norms and gender dynamics are relevant factors in how stakeholders understand the HPV vaccine in SSA. This review iterates the importance of first working with communities to gauge understandings of the HPV vaccine, before trying to implement change through education, sensitization and behavior change.

<p>One of the major reasons for political instability in Sub-Saharan Africa originates from the way elections are conducted. Most African countries have quite a handful of electoral malpractices which lead to political instability, civil wars and low economic growth.  Electronic voting might be a solution to the election problems and thus bring in a stable political atmosphere which attracts investors.</p><p>This thesis looks at the prospects and challenges of implementing e-voting in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa as a solution to the current manual paper-based system and proposes a framework and requirements which can be used as guidelines for its adoption and implementation.</p><p>The thesis has been conducted by studying literature on electronic voting and Diffusion of Innovations Theory. Furthermore, a case study has been conducted on the Ghanaian electoral process, by conducting interviews with the Danquah Institute of Ghana and through questionnaires to some Ghanaian citizens in both the rural and urban areas of Ghana.</p><p>The main results from the thesis show that the adoption and subsequent implementation of e-voting in SSA countries, can only be possible if the governments show strong committment and support by securing funds through donor organizations, and providing the necessary IT infrastructure and other resources needed to support the project. Voter education too is an absolute necessity. The adoption of e-voting is mainly based on how the innovation will be diffused and the perceived benefits that will be derived from the investment. Hence, particular attention should be paid to the various communication channels, especially the media, through which messages are passed across to the citizens.</p>

One of the major reasons for political instability in Sub-Saharan Africa originates from the way elections are conducted. Most African countries have quite a handful of electoral malpractices which lead to political instability, civil wars and low economic growth.  Electronic voting might be a solution to the election problems and thus bring in a stable political atmosphere which attracts investors. This thesis looks at the prospects and challenges of implementing e-voting in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa as a solution to the current manual paper-based system and proposes a framework and requirements which can be used as guidelines for its adoption and implementation. The thesis has been conducted by studying literature on electronic voting and Diffusion of Innovations Theory. Furthermore, a case study has been conducted on the Ghanaian electoral process, by conducting interviews with the Danquah Institute of Ghana and through questionnaires to some Ghanaian citizens in both the rural and urban areas of Ghana. The main results from the thesis show that the adoption and subsequent implementation of e-voting in SSA countries, can only be possible if the governments show strong committment and support by securing funds through donor organizations, and providing the necessary IT infrastructure and other resources needed to support the project. Voter education too is an absolute necessity. The adoption of e-voting is mainly based on how the innovation will be diffused and the perceived benefits that will be derived from the investment. Hence, particular attention should be paid to the various communication channels, especially the media, through which messages are passed across to the citizens.

The aim of this study is to investigate and analyse the military involvement of the USA in the security of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) during the era of the Clinton administration (1993-2001). The study is based on the assumption that the US did not have that much interest in the security of SSA during the Clinton era and that it did not want to become militarily involved in SSA. Its position as the only remaining superpower in the post-Cold War era, however placed a responsibility on the US to be militarily involved in the creation of a more secure SSA. The study relies on two theoretical constructs. On the one hand the changing nature of security in the post-Cold War world in general, but specifically in SSA, serves as a theoretical starting point. This is, on the other hand, supported by a theoretical focus on the nature of military involvement globally, but also specifically in SSA in the era after the Cold War. The latter is to a large extent related to the changing nature of military force and the use thereof in the post-Cold War era. The military involvement of the US in the management of the security of SSA during the Clinton era is analysed against the background of the US interests, policy, and strategy – specifically its security strategy – in SSA. The reality of the absence of concrete US interests in SSA is highlighted. This lack of interest led to a situation whereby SSA could not be a priority in US foreign policy. The US policy objectives in SSA were nevertheless aimed at the promotion of democracy, the improvement of the security situation and the support of economic progress. The reluctance of the US to deploy military forces in SSA underpins its security strategy and military involvement in SSA. The security strategy of the US was in essence preventive in nature since it aimed at preventing the manifestation of threats from SSA against the US by promoting the stability of SSA. However, the US was still militarily involved in SSA in a variety of ways, from the provision of military training and the conduct of military exercises to military operations. Military involvement centred around the empowerment of armed forces in SSA. It was argued that the capacity of the armed forces of SSA should be developed to support democratic governance and economic progress. The capacity building programmes of the US armed forces in SSA concentrated on defence reform, military professionalism, the creation of indigenous conflict resolution and peace support capabilities, the provision of equipment, and the improvement of health and environmental conditions. / Dissertation (MA (Security Studies))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Political Sciences / unrestricted