The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of multiple forms of abuse (physical, psychological, and sexual) on later psychopathology (depression, anxiety, and somatic complaints as assessed by the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist -HSCL) among two ethnic groups (non-Hispanic Caucasian and Hispanic).

M.Sc. / The present study describes the experiences of participants on an Adventure Therapy project at the Ekupholeni Mental Health Clinic in Katlehong. It details an account of the violence, both political and everyday, that face South Africans, particularly children and youth. It also attempts to detail the reconstructive challenges facing a democratic South Africa on the road towards healing. The implicit values underlying the research process are the values of Community Psychology and the Action Research method. Themes were drawn from four taped interview (two group and two individual) sessions. These themes suggest that participants have had positive experiences of pride, dignity, control, responsibility and unity through involvement with the project. These experiences are however not without their contradictions. An attempt has also been made to report on this dialectic. The study makes recommendations regarding the improved functioning of this project and also more widely applicable lessons for working with communities. The recreation of community is a struggle better expressed as a process rather than an event. Further documentation of this project is recommended to build on this baseline data.

This study uses a multiple regression correlational (MRC) analytic approach to examine the association between witnessing violence and reactive aggression, post-traumatic stress, and insecure attachment. One hundred adult male California State University students were surveyed using the Conflict Tactics Scale, the Adolescent Anger Rating Scale, the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment scale, the Child Report of Post Traumatic Symptoms scale, the Conduct Disorder scale, and the Modified Impact of Events scale.

D.Cur. / Armed robbery is one of the most common crimes in South-Africa and often leads to signs of mental problems. The focus of heal services in South Africa is on primary healthcare. Therefore it would be more effective to treat the survivor of armed robbery at the primary level, that is before symptoms of the traumatic reaction convert into mental illness. Therapists observed, however, that survivors of armed robbery terminate therapy prematurely. This might be the reason for failing to use all opportunities to recover within a reasonable period of time. When the survivor of armed robbery does not complete therapy, or does not receive therapy, it leads to a serious decrease in the survivor's mental health status and can necessitate admission and, or treatment with medication. To prevent admission and treatment with medicines, the researcher explored the experience of therapy in order to use the information as a departure point for a model for facilitative interaction for the survivor of armed robbery by the psychiatric nurse. The aim of this research is the description of a model for facilitative interaction for the survivor of armed robbery that can be used by the psychiatric nurse at primary health care level. The researcher followed certain steps to reach the goal. Firstly the experience of the survivor of armed robbery and the experience of the therapist of the survivor of armed robbery following this traumatic incident was explored and described. Phenomenological interviews were conducted with the two target groups, it is the survivors of armed robbery and the therapists of survivors of armed robbery. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed by the researcher and another objective coder. Thereafter a litterature review was done to support the research results which was integrated into the results. Thirdly, concepts were identified, defined and classified in order to create a model for the psychiatric nurse's facilitative interaction with the survivor of armed robbery. Fourthly the structure and process of the model were described and explained by means of illustrations.

This study investigates the meaning that women attach to their experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV). It seeks to explore how women who have experienced violence in the context of an intimate relationship understand, or make sense of, that experience. It is important to investigate this in order to address some of the assumptions that often inform understandings of the phenomena. Moreover, such information can be used to inform the design and implementation of appropriate interventions. Nine women who had previously experienced violence within the context of an intimate heterosexual relationship participated in this study. For ethical reasons only women who had extricated themselves from those relationships were interviewed for this study. Participants’ accounts were therefore retrospective. The women who participated in this study constituted a homogenous group in terms of their level of education, geographic location and employment status. Data was collected through personal, face-to-face interviews which were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data in the form of text was analyzed following Willig’s (2001) criteria for Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Disclosure of the women’s experiences, how they made sense of their experiences, as well as the resources they identified as available to them are reported in the results and analysis chapter.

Abuse in adult relationships as affected by stress, anxiety-proneness, and exposure to abuse as a child was examined using 579 North Texas State University undergraduates, Frequency and levels of abuse observed or received as a child and received or expressed as an adult were measured using a modification of Straus' Conflicts Tactics Scale (1979). Anxiety-proneness was determined by scores received on Spielberger's (1970) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Current levels of stress for the past two years were measured using the Life Experiences Survey (Sarason, 1978). Overall frequencies for received and expressed abuse (including physical and verbal abuse) in adult relationships were quite high (62.9 percent and 73.8 percent respectively). Females reported expressing significantly more abuse than did males. No gender differences were found for the receipt of abuse. Gender differences in types of violence were also examined. In addition, multiple regression was used to determine predictor variables for the expression and receipt of abuse. For males, receiving abuse as a child, positive stress scores, higher levels of anxiety-proneness, and observing father's abuse of mother significantly predicted expressing abuse as an adult. Observing mother's abuse of father and positive stress scores significantly predicted receiving abuse as an adult. For females, having received abuse as a child and trait anxiety were significant predictors for the expression of adult abuse. Receiving abuse as a child was the only significant predictor for the receipt of adult abuse. The greater impact of observing abuse between parents on males was discussed. In addition, difficulties confronting researchers in this area and the possible explanations for more frequent reports of female expression of abuse were examined.

Childhood exposure to familial violence increases risk for adult pathology, namely posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Primary PTSD symptoms of hyperarousal and avoidance are implicated in overgeneral memory (OGM) theory in prior research. Individuals with trauma history tend to report OGMs, or non-specific autobiographical memories, perhaps to avoid unpleasant arousal elicited by recalling specific events. OGM, PTSD, depression, and arousal were assessed in adults with and without familial violence history. Arousal was measured via galvanic skin response (GSR) during an autobiographical memory task (AMT), requiring memory recall in response to emotionally-valenced cue words. Familial violence history was linked to higher incidence of PTSD symptoms. Childhood psychological violence was predictive of adult PTSD. Rates of depression, OGM, and arousal did not significantly vary by violence history. Significant gender differences were found relating to type of violence exposure and adult functioning. Research limitations, clinical implications, and future research suggestions are discussed.

隨著網絡游戲産業在中國的蓬勃發展以及網絡游戲在青少年中的盛行，網絡游戲中的暴力元素對青少年的影響也日益成爲各方關注的焦點。當前國內外的研究多爲行爲層面的效果探討，且未達成共識。本研究以涵化理論爲理論框架，討論暴力網絡游戲對青年認知、態度、情感等層面的影響，同時考察玩家的暴力經驗與網游的認知真實這兩個調節變量的作用。在此基礎上進一步探討暴力網游的“第三順序（third order）涵化效果--即對玩家暴力意圖的影響。 / 研究采用量化的問卷調查法，針對廣州市的中學生進行分層整群抽樣，樣本量爲518人。同時，以《魔獸世界》這一最受歡迎的網絡游戲爲例，分析暴力元素的展現特點以及暴力的叙事策略。 / 結果顯示，在青少年中大受歡迎的網絡遊戲，以暴力網遊爲主。暴力網游對玩家個人層面的暴力認知沒有顯著影響，社會層面的暴力認知的涵化效果僅部分成立。暴力網游的接觸量與玩家的恐懼感之間也沒有顯著正相關關係。但是另外一方面，暴力網游在“卑鄙世界綜合症、暴力態度、移情水平以及暴力意圖等方面，具有顯著的涵化效果。具體而言，玩家的暴力網游的接觸量越大，則越傾向于認爲世界是卑鄙的，他人是不值得信任的，對暴力的贊同度越高，移情水平越低，且越傾向于採取暴力行爲作爲解决矛盾衝突的手段。本文還分析了暴力網游的涵化效果與電視涵化效果的异同，給出了合理的解釋。 / 此外，本研究還利用結果方程模型對暴力網游接觸量、暴力態度、移情和暴力意圖四者之間的關係進行了探索性研究，優化後的模型顯示，暴力網游接觸量對暴力意圖既有直接正面影響，也通過影響暴力態度從而間接對暴力意圖産生影響。暴力網游接觸量還與移情有顯著負相關，但移情則與暴力意圖無顯著相關。該模型驗證了暴力網游的第三順序的涵化效果。 / With the development of online games in Mainland China and the popularity of them among adolescents，the effects of violent games on this group arise more and more attention. Researches talk more about the effect on adolescent’s behavior, and cannot confirm the causal relations between violent online games and aggression. Based on cultivation theory, the current study mainly investigated the effects of violent online games on adolescents from cognitive, attitudinal and affective perspective, and also tested the moderating effect of players’ violent experiences and perceived reality of online games. Moreover, this study explored the third order cultivation effect of violent online games, which refers to whether online game playing will affect players’ intentions to solve problems with aggressive behaviors. / This study adopted quantitative questionnaire surveys among adolescents as the main research method, supplemented by qualitative textual analysis. By selecting World of Warcraft, which is the most popular MMORPG game among players, this study analyzed the characteristics of how the violent elements are demonstrated and also the narrative strategies of violence. Questionnaire surveys were conducted based on a stratified cluster sampling of eight middle schools in Guangzhou. The final sample consisted of 518 adolescents. / The findings show that most popular games among adolescents are violent. Violent online games did not predicted significant violent beliefs on personal level, and partly predicted violent beliefs on societal level. Violent online game playing was not significantly associated with players’ fear of crime. However, on the other hand, the cultivation effects of violent online games on mean world syndrome, attitude toward violence, empathy and violent intentions are supported. / Adolescents who play more violent online games are more inclined to think that the world is mean，others are not worth trusted. More playing are also associated with more proviolent attitude, lower empathy, and more violent intentions. Based on these findings, the differences and similarities of cultivation effects between TV viewing and game play are analyzed. / This study also conducted an exploratory research on the relationships among violent online games playing, attitudes toward violence, empathy and violent intentions by using Structural Equation Modeling. It is found that violent online games playing directly influenced intentions, and also indirectly influenced intentions through its effects on attitude towards violence. Violent online game playing is negatively associated with empathy，but empathy is not significantly associated with intentions. The final modified model confirmed the third order cultivation effect of violent online games. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 陳韵博. / "2013年5月". / "2013 nian 5 yue". / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 339-359). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract in Chinese and English. / Chen Yunbo. / 摘要 --- p.i / Abstract --- p.ii / 致谢 --- p.iv / 目录 --- p.v / 圖示及表格索引 --- p.xi / Chapter 第一章 --- 研究背景介绍 --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- 選題背景 --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- 網絡遊戲的迅猛發展 --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- 網絡遊戲成爲青少年的主要娛樂方式 --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- 青少年喜歡的網遊多有暴力成分 --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.4 --- 暴力遊戲的盛行與青少年犯罪 --- p.6 / Chapter 1.1.5 --- 社會各界的反應 --- p.9 / Chapter 1.1.6 --- 暴力網遊真的十惡不赦嗎？ --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2 --- 研究問題與研究價值 --- p.16 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- 研究問題 --- p.16 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- 研究價值 --- p.19 / Chapter 1.3 --- 研究框架 --- p.20 / Chapter 第二章 --- 文獻綜述（一）：媒介暴力效果研究 --- p.23 / Chapter 2.1 --- 西方媒介暴力效果研究的歷史沿革 --- p.23 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- 電影與暴力：佩恩基金會的研究 --- p.23 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- 漫畫暴力 --- p.25 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- 電視暴力的效果研究 --- p.27 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- 暴力電子游戲 --- p.34 / Chapter 2.1.5 --- 小結 --- p.39 / Chapter 2.2 --- 媒介暴力效果研究相關理論 --- p.41 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- 解釋媒介暴力短期效果的理論 --- p.41 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- 解釋媒介暴力長期效果的理論 --- p.44 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- 媒介暴力的治療和抑制效果：淨化理論（Catharsis Theory） --- p.53 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- 小結 --- p.55 / Chapter 2.3 --- 中國內地的媒介暴力研究 --- p.56 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- 中國學術研究語境中的“媒介暴力 --- p.56 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- 中國內地的媒介暴力研究 --- p.58 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- 中國內地媒介暴力效果的量化實證研究 --- p.60 / Chapter 2.4 --- 暴力的定義 --- p.63 / Chapter 第三章 --- 文獻回顧二：涵化理論 --- p.67 / Chapter 3.1 --- 涵化理論的發展歷程 --- p.67 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- 發展期（1968-1978） --- p.68 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- 挑戰期（1978-1990） --- p.75 / Chapter 3.1.3 --- 理論發展期（1990-2000） --- p.83 / Chapter 3.1.4 --- 涵化理論的發展現狀（2000-2010） --- p.87 / Chapter 3.2 --- 中國內地和港臺地區的涵化效果研究. --- p.91 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- 中國內地的涵化效果研究 --- p.91 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- 港臺地區的涵化研究 --- p.96 / Chapter 3.3 --- 涵化理論在暴力網絡遊戲中的適應性 --- p.100 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- 涵化理論運用於網絡遊戲所面臨的挑戰 --- p.100 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- 暴力網遊的涵化研究：當前的文獻 --- p.104 / Chapter 第四章 --- 研究假設和研究問題 --- p.106 / Chapter 4.1 --- “延伸的涵化效果 --- p.106 / Chapter 4.2 --- 與暴力相關的涵化變量 --- p.107 / Chapter 4.3 --- 不同變量的涵化效果强度 --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4 --- 研究假設與研究問題 --- p.112 / Chapter 4.5 --- 調節變量的影響 --- p.121 / Chapter 第五章 --- 研究方法 --- p.125 / Chapter 5.1 --- 數據收集過程 --- p.125 / Chapter 5.1.1 --- 焦點小組 --- p.125 / Chapter 5.1.2 --- 問卷調查 --- p.126 / Chapter 5.2 --- 變量的測量 --- p.129 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- 自變量：暴力網絡游戲的接觸量 --- p.130 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- 因變量 --- p.131 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- 控制變量 --- p.135 / Chapter 5.2.4 --- 調節變量 --- p.136 / Chapter 5.3 --- 數據處理方法 --- p.140 / Chapter 5.3.1 --- 多元分層回歸分析 (Hierarchical Regression Analysis) --- p.140 / Chapter 5.3.2 --- 結構方程模型 --- p.141 / Chapter 第六章 --- 理解游戲世界 --- p.147 / Chapter 6.1 --- 網絡游戲簡介 --- p.147 / Chapter 6.1.1 --- 網絡游戲及其分類 --- p.147 / Chapter 6.1.2 --- 網絡游戲的魅力 --- p.149 / Chapter 6.2 --- 走近暴力網游 --- p.151 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- 網絡游戲中暴力的根源 --- p.151 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- 暴力網絡游戲的影響機制 --- p.152 / Chapter 6.3 --- 網絡游戲中的暴力--以《魔獸世界》爲例 --- p.153 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- 選擇《魔獸世界》的理由 --- p.154 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- 從整體規劃看《魔獸世界》中暴力的特點 --- p.156 / Chapter 6.3.3 --- 從角色技能看暴力的展現 --- p.162 / Chapter 6.3.4 --- 從視覺角度看《魔獸世界》中的暴力場景 --- p.163 / Chapter 6.3.5 --- 游戲世界之外的暴力 --- p.167 / Chapter 第七章 --- 研究發現 --- p.169 / Chapter 7.1 --- 量表的信度和效度 --- p.169 / Chapter 7.1.1 --- 信度 --- p.169 / Chapter 7.1.2 --- 效度 --- p.171 / Chapter 7.1.3 --- 本研究量表的信度和效度 --- p.173 / Chapter 7.2 --- 青少年網絡行爲基本描述 --- p.185 / Chapter 7.2.1 --- 平均每周上網時間 --- p.185 / Chapter 7.2.2 --- 網上活動 --- p.186 / Chapter 7.2.3 --- 玩網絡游戲的歷史 --- p.187 / Chapter 7.2.4 --- 游戲地點 --- p.187 / Chapter 7.2.5 --- 最受歡迎的網絡游戲 --- p.188 / Chapter 7.2.6 --- 網絡游戲花費 --- p.189 / Chapter 7.2.7 --- 父母監督 --- p.192 / Chapter 7.3 --- 變量的基本描述 --- p.193 / Chapter 7.3.1 --- 自變量：暴力網游接觸量 --- p.193 / Chapter 7.3.2 --- 調節變量 --- p.195 / Chapter 7.3.3 --- 因變量 --- p.197 / Chapter 7.4 --- 變量之間的相關分析 --- p.211 / Chapter 7.4.1 --- 自變量與調節變量的相關分析 --- p.211 / Chapter 7.4.2 --- 因變量與調節變量的相關分析 --- p.213 / Chapter 7.5 --- 涵化基本假設的檢驗 --- p.222 / Chapter 7.5.1 --- 暴力網游接觸量與個人層面的暴力認知 --- p.222 / Chapter 7.5.2 --- 暴力網游接觸量與社會層面的暴力認知 --- p.232 / Chapter 7.5.3 --- 暴力網游接觸量與卑鄙世界綜合症 --- p.249 / Chapter 7.5.4 --- 暴力網游接觸量與暴力態度 --- p.253 / Chapter 7.5.5 --- 暴力網游接觸量與移情水平 --- p.257 / Chapter 7.5.6 --- 暴力網游接觸量與暴力意圖 --- p.261 / Chapter 7.5.7 --- 暴力態度與暴力意圖之間的關係檢驗 --- p.264 / Chapter 7.5.8 --- 移情水平與暴力意圖之間的關係檢驗 --- p.266 / Chapter 7.5.9 --- 暴力網游接觸量與對犯罪的恐懼 --- p.267 / Chapter 7.5.10 --- 本節小結 --- p.269 / Chapter 7.6 --- 第三順序的涵化效果：結構方程模型的檢驗結果 --- p.272 / Chapter 7.6.1 --- 驗證性因子分析 --- p.273 / Chapter 7.6.2 --- 結構方程模型的檢驗結果 --- p.276 / Chapter 第八章 --- 總結與討論 --- p.287 / Chapter 8.1 --- 研究結果總結 --- p.287 / Chapter 8.1.1 --- 暴力網遊的吸引力 --- p.287 / Chapter 8.1.2 --- 暴力網遊對青少年的涵化效果. --- p.289 / Chapter 8.1.3 --- 小結 --- p.295 / Chapter 8.2 --- 本研究的理論價值 --- p.298 / Chapter 8.3 --- 本研究的方法創新 --- p.305 / Chapter 8.4 --- 本研究的現實啓示 --- p.306 / Chapter 8.4.1 --- 網絡遊戲的暴力性評估和分級制度 --- p.306 / Chapter 8.4.2 --- 青少年的網絡媒介素養教育 --- p.313 / Chapter 8.4.3 --- 對社會各界的啓示 --- p.315 / Chapter 8.5 --- 研究局限與未來的方向 --- p.320 / Chapter 8.5.1 --- 本研究的局限 --- p.320 / Chapter 8.5.2 --- 未來的研究方向 --- p.324 / Chapter 附錄 --- 問卷 --- p.327 / 參考文獻 --- p.339

One of the most common community responses to intimate partner violence is batterer intervention programs (BIPs), which are aimed at ending perpetrators' violent behavior. Unfortunately, however, the success rates of BIPs are questionable (Aldarondo, 2002; Gondolf, 2002) and we do not know what factors of the program facilitate decreases in abusive behavior when this does occur. Specifically, it is unknown whether and how individual characteristics interact with intervention group dynamics to facilitate change. To better understand this gap in the literature, this study investigated the relationship between social support, group majority-minority status, and interpersonal dependency in predicting intimate partner violence. The study utilizes data collected for a larger study sampling 180 men enrolled in a batterer intervention program in Portland, Oregon. It was hypothesized that partner violence is positively related to interpersonal dependency and negatively related to group social support. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that majority-minority group status moderates the relationship between group social support and intimate partner violence. As predicted, men who were more dependent on their partners also reported higher levels of psychological aggression perpetrated against their partners during the past 6-months. However, this relationship did not exist between interpersonal dependency and conflict tactics related to physical assault, injury, or sexual coercion. Further, perceived social support in the group did not predict partner violence as hypothesized. However, among men who had attended nine or fewer BIP sessions, both group social support and interpersonal dependency were positively associated with psychological aggression. Finally, among men who were involved in an intimate relationship at the time of data collection, interpersonal dependency was positively related to psychological aggression and physical assault.

South African black children have been exposed to extremely high levels of violence, especially in the townships. This study was initiated in ,order to explore the effects of violence on the self-concept of the black child in South Africa. In addition the applicability of current self-concept theories and psychometric measures to this population was investigated. This study is therefore mainly exploratory. Sixty individuals of both sexes between the ages of 8 and 10 years were sampled from two schools. Thirty from one in a high violence and the other thirty from one in a low violence area. However, after finding that the experimental and control groups did not differ signifficantly these groups were reassigned according to exposure to violence rather than geographically. Direct and indirect exposure to violence as well as family and other stressors were measured with the aid of the Life Events Questionnaire (Mason and Killian, 1993). In order to determine the effect of exposure to violence on selfconcept these two groups were compared using one quantitative and two qualitative selfconcept measures. The quantitative measure was the Piers-Harris Children's SelfConcept Scale and the qualitative measures were the Human Figure Drawing Test and an Incomplete Sentences Test. Results were analysed by multivariate statistical procedures. This study concluded that violence has no significant effect.on self-concept in black children (p,>O.05). The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale was found to be a reliable measure of self-concept in black children. Recommendations include broadening self-concept theories for black children by incorporating theories from disciplines other than psychology. The power of the present study would have been increased by using larger samples. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1996.