A general review of soils in Virginia counties bordering the Chesapeake Bay reveals that coastal plain soils, especially those most agriculturally productive, are dominantly sandy texture in the subsurface horizon, and have shallow water tables. Considering the high amounts of pesticides used in the coastal plain region and the porous nature of sandy texture soils, there is a great potential for pesticide leaching and subsequent contamination of surface and groundwater sources. This is of great concern because of the potential detrimental effects these agrochemicals represent on aquatic and animal life in the Chesapeake Bay, the largest and most productive estuary in the United States. / Master of Science

Multiple-teacher departments of vocational agriculture were increasing in number. This conclusion is substantiated by the fact that Virginia rural schools were consolidating at a rapid rate. The fact that all multiple-teacher departments have developed in the past 14 years indicates a definite trend to this type of department. High school enrollment and the size of the area served by the school does not have a direct bearing on the number of vocational agriculture teachers in a department. Two teachers served an area as small as 40 square miles, while the same number of teachers in another school served an area of 881 square miles. High school enrollment in the two-teacher schools varied from 134 to 1375. / Master of Science

Four rapid soil test extracting procedures for potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium, and one absorption procedure for potassium and phosphorus were compared. The soils studied represented important agricultural soils in the Coastal Plains, Piedmont and the Limestone Valley areas of Virginia. Extracting and testing procedures were evaluated on the basis of laboratory performance by correlation with supplemental yield data from 49 field experiments. Four systems of soil test interpretation were applied in correlating soil tests with crop response to current fertilizer applications. It appeared that only an empirical correlation could be made between crop response and a soil testing procedure which attempts to simulate seasonal crop removal of soil nutrients. A more basic, more tenable correlation appeared possible with soi1 testing procedures which approach total measurement of exchangeable K₂O, CaO and MgO, and adsorbed and acid soluble P₂O₅. With certain modifications, Bray's sodium perchlorate solution was the most promising of the extractants tested for measuring total exchangeable K₂O, CaO and MgO. Neither the acetate or the chloride ion adequately measured adsorbed P₂O₅. No other anions were tested in the phosphorus extractions. It appeared questionable that absorption techniques could be adapted to a correlation with the response of general field crops to fertilizer applications. The chemical testing procedures used for determining K₂O, P₂O₅ and MgO in the soil extracts were found quite satisfactory. Calcium tests on soil extracts were erratic. The variability of calcium readings appeared to result from pH relationships involved both in the extraction and in the developed test solutions. The "high-low-medium" interpretation and the interpretation based upon simple response or non-response permitted only a general correlation to be made. Their potential value appeared to be chiefly that of giving support to fertilizer recommendations arrived at on the basis of more specific information regarding the soil type, soil pH, the crop to be grown, the location, and the cropping and fertilization history of the field. The balance sheet interpretation must, of necessity, be based upon fractional extraction. Such a correlation must be strictly empirical. A balance sheet correlation, using any the extracting procedures that were tested, did not appear to be possible for corn on the heavy soils of the Limestone Valley. The growth curve interpretation as developed by Bray in Illinois appeared moat promising as a means for resolving fertilizer practice based upon rapid soil tests to a simple formula which takes into consideration current soU productivity and the specific behavior of specific crops to soil and fertilizer nutrients in specific soils. The accurate determination of the constants involved will permit a quantitative relationship between soil teats and fertilizer recommendations. / Master of Science

Precommercial thinning of 12-year-old upland oak stump-sprouts in southwestern Virginia using herbicides and manual felling was compared. Objectives were to quantify and compare residual crop-stem growth and treatment costs between treatments and application methods. 2,4-D and triclopyr were applied to competing stump-sprouts using stem injection and low volume basal spray techniques. Kerosene, the carrier for the ester formulations, was also tested for its efficacy properties. One growing season following treatment, total control (percent affected and dead) of chemically treated sprouts averaged 98 percent. Triclopyr basal spray treatment exhibited the highest mortality to treated sprouts totaling 88.6 percent and kerosene had the lowest mortality occurrence of 7.6 percent. On average, translocation was minimal affecting only 58 percent of the crop-stems with less than 10 percent of the crown exhibiting visual symptoms. Mortality of residual crop-stems did not occur and an average of 36 percent exhibited no visual symptoms. Mean height growth for residual crop-stems was significantly greater for manual thinning over unthinned control. Crop-stem height growth was also significantly greater for the contrasts of manual thinning vs chemical thinning and manual thinning vs basal spray treatments. No significant differences occurred for any growth parameter between unthinned control and chemical treatments nor between injection and basal spray treatments. Results of regression-adjusted volume growth (D²H) showed that a 2 percent increase in growth over control was realized for the crop-stems following injection treatments versus a 1 percent increase as a result of the basal treatments. The manual thinning treatment was found to exhibit a significantly greater effect on crop-stem growth compared to chemical treatments averaging a 4 percent volume growth increase. Chemical treatment costs ranged from $36.05/ha to $82.23/ha for 2,4-D injection and triclopyr basal spray treatments, respectively. Manual thinning was found to be the most expensive treatment at $105.30/ha. Injection treatments were significantly more productive and the least expensive. Application costs incurred during the present study were representative of costs incurred by forest industry, private, and public agencies in the southern United States. Overall results of this study suggest that chemical pre-commercial thinning of oak stump-sprouts is a safe, cost effective method of reducing competitionand releasing dominant crop-stems. / Master of Science

The market for agricultural credit in Virginia was analyzed to provide market intelligence to financial institutions which extend credit to Virginia farmers. The agricultural environment in the U.S., the South, and Virginia were reviewed concerning the effect of current agricultural sector transition on producers, lenders, agribusinesses, and rural communities. The agricultural credit delivery system in Virginia was studied. The credit use and needs of Virginia farmers and agricultural customers of three Virginia banks were also evaluated. The market for agricultural credit in Virginia was found to be stable. Virginia agriculture is in relatively good financial condition, benefiting from the state's diverse and strong general economy. The use of agricultural credit varied demographically, with one-half of Virginia farmers owing no agricultural debt. Virginia farmers considered Interest rates most important te iender selection and desired the implementation of financial services such as tax planning, estate planning, and financial management seminars. Statistical analysis revealed the presence of market segmentation variables but failed to definitely identify segments. Bank customer survey group responses varied from those of Virginia farmers in general and from each other. Challenges facing Virginia agricultural lenders include adapting to the new agricultural environment, meeting the changing needs of the modified customer base, and competing with new sources of credit. A synopsls of recent studies and statistical information concerning U.S., Southern, and Virginia agriculture and results of the 1987 Virginia Agricultural Credit Use and Needs Survey are included. / Master of Science

Performance of Southwest Virginia coal: The results of the 24-hour tests herein recorded indicate that nut and slack coal from Southwest Virginia can be burned economically at burning rates of from 15.36 to 27.20 pounds of dry fuel per square foot of projected grate area per hour with an average efficiency of 75.12 per cent, with extremes of 73.21 and 77.28 per cent. / Master of Science

Turnpike building in Greenbrier and Monroe counties coincided with the period of their springs' greatest development and prosperity. The development of both the springs and the turnpikes in this region reflected the cyclical nature of the national economy. The springs of Greenbrier and Monroe counties at the heart of the antebellum Virginia Springs Tour provided a seasonal internal marketplace for the region. Turnpikes were built primarily to connect these springs with each other and with the state's major road arteries through southwestern Virginia. Without other internal improvements prior to the Civil War, this region fared comparably with the rest of western Virginia and the state as a whole in their bid for state assistance for turnpikes. Generally turnpike investments at both the local and the state level provided better access to the springs. Though inextricably connected through the springs tour, Greenbrier and Monroe Counties fared differently in their struggle for internal improvements. / Master of Arts

A municipal government’s worksite exercise program was evaluated to determine its effect upon health care costs and employee absenteeism. Thirty-two employees who had participated for four and one-half years were compared to 32 nonparticipating employees. Results of this evaluation indicated that participants were significantly more often female, younger, higher paid, and in higher job classifications. No significant differences in smoking status and marital status were observed between groups. Results also revealed that participants did not use significantly fewer sick hours or health care dollars as compared to nonparticipants. However, after an initial increase in both variables the year after the program began, reductions were seen for participants in the following years. An evaluation of data prior to installation of the program showed that those joining the exercise program were not already using significantly fewer health care dollars or sick days than nonparticipants. Focus groups conducted with nonparticipants disclosed that most employees know exercise is beneficial; however, nonparticipation was largely due to a lack of time to exercise. Findings of this research suggest that health care costs and absenteeism can be reduced over time by implementing worksite exercise programs. Worksite exercise programs need to be marketed toward older, male, lower paid workers in lower job classifications since these groups tend to not join as readily as workers who are younger, female, and higher paid. / Master of Science

Overwinter survival of wild turkeys on industrial forests managed for short-rotation pines (treatment) and typical Piedmont forests and farmland (control), was investigated in Virginia's central Piedmont during 1986-1988. Ninety-six percent of the turkeys (N =106) were captured in early fall with alpha-chloralose laced bait. Sixty-three percent of the captured turkeys recovered and were released with transmitters; 15% were released without transmitters; and 21% died from capture related causes. Overwinter survival for all turkeys was <2% regardless of area or year. Daily survival was lower on the control areas (P < 0.01), however, due to the small (13) and scattered sample of turkeys captured over the 3 years on control areas, these data were omitted from further analyses. Daily survival on treatment areas over the 3 years was 97.6%. Thirty-seven percent of radio-equipped turkeys on treatment areas died within 2 weeks of release suggesting that factors related to the trapping process influenced survival. Possibilities considered were residual effects from alpha-chloralose, capture myopathy, and/or a negative effect from the transmitter and/or harness. Four weeks after release daily survival rates improved significantly (P < 0.01) indicating the influence from trapping had subsided. While hardwoods composed 38% of the primary treatment area, 65% of turkeys died in hardwood stands; predation accounted for 81% of the turkey mortality (N =42). Field evidence and necropsy results plus scent station data indicated that gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) were the main turkey predators. Fox scats contained no detectable turkey remains but indicated that eastern cottontails (Silvilagus floridanus) were a primary prey species. / Master of Science

The basic objectives of this study are (1) the identification of planning needs, (2) the development of an orderly approach to the processes of planning, and (3) the development of an argument for planning in rural counties of Virginia. The data was obtained through library research, personal interview, and field inspection in rural counties of Virginia. The most significant results are: 1. Current population trends show both compositional and quantitative changes taking place in the rural counties of Virginia. 2. Land use development patterns in Virginia rural counties, under the present conditions, are wasteful and overtax the existing facilities. 3. Land usefulness determinations involving soil composition and physical characteristics are gaining in use in agriculture, engineering, building, and taxation. 4. County government, although organized in its most prevalent form for antiquatedness and obsolescence, is adequate to make gainful use of the processes of planning, including the most up-to-date ideas. 5. Legislation is adequate at the state level to enable the county unit of government to implement by ordinances the policies appropriate to a rural county planning program. 6. Economic conditions in the rural counties are important indices to the soundness of the county's Condition. 7. Implementation of planning programs in the rural counties can be accomplished through action programs involving citizen participation as part of a continuous planning and educational process. / Master of Science