Although evidence is mounting that asphalt binder oxidizes in pavements, and that oxidation and subsequent hardening of asphalt binder has a profound effect on pavement durability, important implementation issues remain to be better understood. Quantitative assessment of asphalt binder oxidation for a given pavement is a very important, but complex issue. In this dissertation, a fundamentals-based oxygen transport and reaction model was developed to assess quantitative asphalt binder oxidation in pavements. In this model, oxygen transport and reaction were described mathematically as two interlinked steps: 1) diffusion and/or flow of oxygen from the atmosphere above the pavement into the interconnected air voids in the pavement; and 2) diffusion of oxygen from those air voids into the adjoining asphalt-aggregate matrix where it reacts with the asphalt binder. Because such a model calculation depends extensively on accurately representing pavement temperature, understanding oxygen diffusivity in asphalt binders and mastics, and characterizing air voids in pavements, these key model elements were studied in turn. Hourly pavement temperatures were calculated with an improved one-dimensional heat transfer model, coupled with methods to obtain model-required climate data from available databases and optimization of site-specific pavement parameters nationwide; oxygen diffusivity in binders was determined based on laboratory oxidation experiments in binder films of known reaction kinetics by comparing the oxidation rates at the binder surface and at a solid-binder interface at the film depth. The effect of aggregate filler on oxygen diffusivity also was quantified, and air voids in pavements were characterized using X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) and image processing techniques. From these imaging techniques, three pavement air void properties, radius of each air void (r), number of air voids (N), and average shell distance between two air voids (rNFB) were obtained to use as model inputs in the asphalt binder oxidation model. Then, by incorporating these model element improvements into the oxygen transport and reaction model, asphalt binder oxidation rates for a number of Texas and Minnesota pavements were calculated. In parallel, field oxidation rates were measured for these corresponding pavement sites and compared to the model calculations. In general, there was a close match between the model calculations and field measurements, suggesting that the model captures the most critical elements that affect asphalt binder oxidation in pavements. This model will be used to estimate the rate of asphalt binder oxidation in pavements as a first step to predicting pavement performance, and ultimately, to improve pavement design protocols and pavement maintenance scheduling.

The classical approach to strategy defines strategy as a process of planned calculation and analysis to design long-term advantages. The Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP) model argues that firms perform and develop strategies based on market structures. These approaches have been seen as the “norm” but are today criticised as outdated since they do not fully suit new emerging markets. The aim of the study is to investigate whether these approaches need modifications for emerging markets and if unique factors need to be emphasized when developing sale strategies for the Chinese market.  The empirical findings are based on two Scandinavian firms with long experience in China. A qualitative exploratory research design is conducted trough the study. As a conclusion a guideline of vital factors for the Chinese market is provided: market knowledge, political and social system, relationships and branding. The knowledge of these factors can help other companies to master the complex environment of the Chinese market.

The directive of the European parliament and of the council on the Restriction of the use of certain Hazardous Substances (RoHS) in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) took effect in the European Union on July 1, 2006. Japan, California, China and Korea are all closed markets for exporters of components containing lead from July 1, 2007. Taiwan and Australia are working with similar directives. The RoHS directive is the reason why this thesis about the implementation of lead-free soldering in highly reliable applications is necessary. The European Lead Free soldering NETwork (ELFNET) status survey from 2005 shows that the majority of the companies are well informed, but 20% are still not active in lead-free soldering. The Swedish industry is for the most part prepared and 95% of the components are lead-free. The transition to lead-free soldering will have a major affect on logistics and administration, because the RoHS directive is 90% about administration and logistics problems. Only 10% is technical problems. The higher melting point in lead-free soldering affects every stage of the lead-free manufacturing, from assembly to testing and repair. The major concern for highly reliable applications are that there are not enough data to understand to what grade lead-free solders will perform differently from lead based solders. Five different types of reliability testing were studied in this thesis; vibration, mechanical shock, thermal shock, thermal cycling and combined environments. Whiskers, voids, brittle fractures and mixed assembly problems were also studied. Individual tests alone should not be used to make definite decisions on lead-free soldering reliability. The lower reliability for lead-free solders in some tests does not necessarily mean that lead-free solders not can be used in highly reliable applications like defence electronics. The most important conclusions from this thesis are: • Update or change the logistic system and mark/label according to available standards. • Secure a good board layout. • Secure a good process control. • Alternative surface board should be used. Tin-silver-copper (SAC) is the most reliable solder and Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold (ENIG) is the most reliable surface finish. • Remember that the higher temperature affects every stage of the manufacturing. • No increased problems with whiskers or risk of high voiding levels. • Mixed assembly is a risk. Compatibility and contamination risks must be taken seriously. • Which environment will the applications be in? If it is not a highly vibrating and thermal cycling environment, lead-free soldering should be safe to use. / Europaparlamentets och rådets direktiv om begränsning av användningen av vissa farliga ämnen i elektriska och elektroniska produkter började gälla i Europeiska unionen 1 juli, 2006. Japan, Kalifornien, Kina och Korea är alla stängda marknader för exportörer av komponenter som innehåller bly från och med 1 juli, 2007. Taiwan och Australien arbetar med liknande direktiv. RoHS-direktivet är anledningen till varför detta examensarbete om implementeringen av blyfri lödning i högtillförlitliga applikationer är nödvändigt. En undersökning från 2005 av ELFNET visar att majoriteten av företagen är väl informerade, men 20% är fortfarande i aktiva med blyfri lödning. Den svenska industrin är till största delen väl förberedd och 95% av komponenterna är blyfria. Övergången till blyfri lödning kommer att ha stor effekt på logistik och administration, därför att 90% är administrations- och logistikproblem i RoHS-direktivet. Bara 10% är tekniska problem. Den högre smälttemperaturen i blyfri lödning påverkar varje steg av den blyfria tillverkningen, från montering till testning och reparation. Den stora oron för högtillförlitliga applikationer är att det inte finns tillräckligt med data för att förstå i vilken grad som blyfria lod kommer att bete sig annorlunda jämfört med blybaserade lod. Fem olika typer av tillförlitlighetstester har undersökts i detta examensarbete; vibration, mekanisk chock, termisk chock, termisk cykling och kombinerade tester. Whiskers, voids, sprödbrott och blandad montering studerades också. Individuella tester ska inte användas för att ta några definitiva beslut om blyfri lödnings tillförlitlighet. Den lägre tillförlitligheten för blyfria lod i en del tester behöver nödvändigtvis inte betyda att blyfria lod inte kan användas i högtillförlitliga applikationer som försvarselektronik. De viktigaste slutsatserna från detta examensarbete är: • Uppdatera eller byt logistiskt system och märk enligt tillgängliga standarder. • Säkerställ en bra kretskortsdesign. • Säkerställ en bra processkontroll. • Alternativa mönsterkort bör användas. SAC är det tillförlitligaste lodet och ENIG är den tillförlitligaste ytbehandlingen. • Kom ihåg att den ökade temperaturen påverkar varje steg i tillverkningen. • Inga ökade problem med whiskers eller stort antal voids. • Blandmontage är riskfyllt. Kompatibilitet och risker med kontaminering måste tas på allvar. • Vilken miljö kommer applikationen att befinna sig i? Är det inte en starkt vibrerande eller temperaturcyklisk miljö bör blyfri lödning vara säkert att använda.

Šiame darbe tirtos ir analizuotos šiltojo maišymo asfalto mišinių naudojimo Lietuvos keliuose galimybės. Darbe pateikta asfalto mišinių klasifikacija pagal gamybos ir klojimo temperatūrą, analizuota asfalto mišinių darbo temperatūros žeminimo technologijų raida (istorija) bei pateikta tyrimų, susijusių su šiltojo maišymo asfalto mišinių panaudojimu, apžvalga. Darbe analizuotos ir lygintos įvairios šiltojo maišymo asfalto mišinių gamybos technologijos. Taip pat darbe analizuoti ir vertinti šių mišinių privalumai ir trūkumai, atliktas skirtingų šiltojo maišymo asfalto mišinių gamybos ir naudojimo technologijų palyginimas. Šio darbo metu atlikti eksperimentiniai laboratoriniai tyrimai bei šiltojo maišymo asfalto mišinių cheminių priedų (Iterlow T) ir ceolitų (gamtinio ceolito ir Aspha–min) gamybos technologijos išbandytos kelyje įrengiant eksperimentines asfalto dangų atkarpas Lietuvos valstybinės reikšmės keliuose Nr. 4007, Nr. 153 ir Nr. 3907. Eksperimentinių dangų įrengimo metu fiksuotos asfalto mišinių gamybos ir klojimo temperatūros, tikrintas mišinių sutankinimas, vykdyta asfalto dangos vizuali apžiūra (iš karto po dangos paklojimo ir po 6 mėnesių eksploatacijos). Eksperimentiniai laboratoriniai tyrimai vykdyti Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universiteto Aplinkos inžinerijos fakulteto Kelių tyrimo instituto Automobilių kelių mokslo laboratorijoje. Šiltojo maišymo asfalto mišinių laboratorinių tyrimų metu projektuoti ir tirti AC 16 PD ir SMA 11 S asfalto mišiniai su... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / This master thesis presents research, analysis and evaluation of possibilities for the use of warm mix asphalt (WMA) in Lithuania. Classification of asphalt mix (according to its production temperature) are given in this thesis along with the short overview of different WMA technologies and analysis of advantages and disadvantages of these technologies compared to traditional hot mix asphalt. Comparison of different WMA technologies is also made. It also presents WMA experimental laboratory and field researches done by Road Research Institute of Vilnius Gediminas Technical University. During experimental field research chemical (Iterlow T) and water bearing (natural zeolite and Aspha–min) additives technologies were used to lower asphalt mix production and compaction temperatures. Asphalt mix laying temperatures and compaction level were recorded when asphalt mix was laid on the road. Experimental laboratory researches of WMA are introduced in this thesis also. Organic additives technologies were used in this research to lower asphalt mixes production and compaction temperatures. AC 16 PD and SMA 11 S asphalt mixes were analysed. Specimens taken from experimental field sections were also examined. Analysis and evaluation of WMA technologies used for laboratory and field researches is given in this master thesis along with conclusions and recommendations for the further research and use of WMA in Lithuania.

The Electromigration-induced failure of metallic interconnects is a complicated process, which involves flux divergence, vacancy and atom accumulation with or without compositional variations, void and hillocks nucleation, growth and shape changes. Hillocks and surface void dynamics in connection with the critical morphological evaluation have been investigated in order to understand the conditions under which premature failure of metallic thin interconnects occur. In this thesis, an interconnect is idealized as a two dimensional electrically conducting strip which contains gaussian form hillock or edge void. Indirect boundary element is used to predict the evolution of the surface after the applied electric field. Computer simulation results show that the surface crystal structure of is extremely important in the determination of the life time of thin film single crystal interconnect lines. Under the applied electrostatic field not only the degree of rotational symmetry (parameter, m) but also the orientation of the surface plane play dominant role in the development of the surface topology and the formation of the fatal EM induced voids. The degree of anisotropy in the surface diffusion coefficient, and the intensity of the electron wind parameter may have great influence on the evolution regime actually taking place on the surfaces and at sidewalls of the interconnects.

This MEng (Master of Engineering) research thesis evaluates the capabilities and limitations of line-scan thermography for the non-destructive evaluation of composite structures containing hidden defects. In simple terms, line-scan thermography is a state-of-the-art technique in which a focused line of thermal energy is transmitted into a material. Line-scan thermography has great potential for the rapid and low cost non-destructive inspection of composite structures for aircraft, automobiles and ships. In this project, theoretical research exploring the heat transfer physics was undertaken in conjunction with experimental studies to develop an optimum inspection regime for line-scan thermography. The capability of line-scan thermography to detect impact damage in carbon/epoxy laminates was experimentally investigated in Chapter 3. From the impact side, in all materials, line-scan thermography overestimated the size of the impact damage whereas flash thermography underestimated the size. There was a close relationship between the ultrasonic profile and the line-scan thermographic thermal response curve. New experimental data has been produced and analysed for the ability of line-scan thermography to determine the defect as well as the defect size. It was found that line-scan thermography was able to distinguish back drilled holes, but it was not possible to determine accurate defect sizing due to the depth of the holes from the inspected surface and the limitations associated with the line-scan thermographic apparatus itself. There was excellent correlation between the C-scan ultrasonics intensity curves and the line-scan thermographs as well as excellent correlation with the theoretical results. The relationship between line-scan thermography and foreign body objects were experimentally investigated for carbon/epoxy composites. A major limitation found with line-scan thermography is its limited depth penetration, which is highlighted in the foreign object study using 6 mm and 13 mm diameter Teflon® discs and 13 mm Teflon® strips embedded in carbon/epoxy laminates. Depth penetration allowed only 2 mm resolution for the 13 mm diameter discs and 1.5 mm resolution for the 6 mm discs in a composite panel. The results of the investigation of stainless steel shim objects in carbon/epoxy laminates reveal that line-scan thermography is capable of determining their presence and size close to the surface. There was also excellent correlation between the ultrasonic response curve and the line-scan thermographic intensity curve. The results of the investigation of thermoplastic film foreign body objects in carbon/epoxy laminates show that at present line-scan thermography does not have the capability to determin e such defects. Experimental results show that line-scan thermography is capable of detecting large voids, back drilled holes, some foreign body objects, and impact damage. However, the ability of line-scan thermography to measure the defect dimensions is dependent on the size and type of damage, the distance from the line source, the depth of the defect, and the type of composite material.

O estudo em laboratório do desempenho mecânico de solos artificialmente cimentados está normalmente vinculado à simulação do comportamento de geomateriais naturalmente formados em campo. Por outro lado, o estudo desses novos materiais pode ser também ferramenta útil na previsão do comportamento de aterros de solos artificialmente melhorados. O comportamento de solos cimentados possui considerável influência da densidade e do estado de tensões a que estes materiais estão submetidos durante a fase que compreende a cimentação dessas partículas. Uma alternativa ao estudo da cimentação nestes solos, é a elaboração de um meio em que as amostras possam ser cimentadas sob um estado de tensões específico, e que ao mesmo tempo em que se promove uma redução do índice de vazios do respectivo material. Seguindo nessa analogia, o presente estudo visa apresentar resultados de ensaios triaxiais realizados em amostras de um solo artificialmente cimentado, curadas sob diferentes níveis de tensão e estado de tensões. São abordados os resultados do ponto de vista da rigidez e deformabilidade encontrados para o material. Os resultados demonstraram que a alteração dos estados de tensões de cura, bem como a magnitude das tensões confinantes durante a cura, apresentaram influência no comportamento tensão-deformação-dilatância das amostras artificialmente cimentadas. / The laboratory study of mechanical performance of artificially cemented soils is normally associated with the mechanical behaviour of geomaterials that were created in field. The behaviour of artificially cemented soils has substantial influence of density and the stress state that these materials have been submitted during the particles cementation. Thus, an alternative to the understanding of cement effects in these soils is the preparation of a similar environment where the specimens can be submitted the cementation while a specific stress state is applied, promoting the respective void ratio reduction. Following this approach, this study aims to show the results of triaxial tests carried out in an artificially cemented soil, which was cured at different stress states. The results have shown that the changing of stress state of curing, as well as the intensity of the confining stress during the cure, presented considerably influence in the stress-strain-dilatancy of the artificially cemented samples.

No forjamento em matriz aberta o tempo gasto com retrabalhos e descarte de material não conforme gera custos e atraso no atendimento ao cliente. A fim de minimizar estas perdas, realizou-se uma revisão dos principais conceitos e fundamentos do processo de forjamento a quente em matriz aberta que influenciam na qualidade interna do produto. Com o intuito de desenvolver o processo de forjamento a quente em matriz aberta de chapas do aço W.NR. 1.2714 com espessura de 311 mm, largura de 634 mm e comprimento de 6000 mm, avaliou-se as descontinuidades internas deste produto. Através de análises preliminares realizadas, foi possível observar que a descontinuidade interna típica tratava-se de vazio. Com este resultado, desenhou-se um projeto experimental com corpos de prova quadrados com defeitos falsos de 30 mm de diâmetro e forjados para simular uma das etapas do forjamento de chapas. Foram selecionadas três combinações de matrizes e dois tempos de encharque. Todos os corpos de prova foram aquecidos no mesmo forno sob mesmas condições e forjados com duas reduções de 50 mm cada (33% - deformação relativa total), com giro de 180 graus entre elas. Após o resfriamento ao ar, as amostras sofreram alívio de tensões e foram cortadas em serra a 150 mm da extremidade do furo. As variáveis respostas do plano experimental foram a área do furo, o alargamento e o alongamento. A amostra forjada com a combinação de matriz AC, composta pela matriz funil na parte superior e mesa de forjamento na parte inferior e tempo de encharque de 7h teve o furo caldeado. Com todas as combinações de matrizes, o tempo de encharque de 7h levou a menor área do furo, maior alargamento e maior alongamento que o tempo de 11h. / In open die forging the time spent on rework, and disposal of non-compliant material, generates costs and delays in customer service. To minimize these losses, a review of key concepts and fundamentals of the process of open die forging was carried out emphasizing the internal quality of the product. In order to develop the process of open die hot forging in plate steel W.NR 1.2714 with a thickness of 311 mm, width 634 mm and a length of 6000 mm, internal discontinuities of this product were evaluated. Through preliminary analysis was possible to observe that the typical internal discontinuity were voids. With this result, experiments were designed for square specimens with false defects of 30 mm in diameter, which were forged in order to simulate one of the steps in the forging of plates. Three combinations of dies and two soak times were selected. All samples were heated in the same furnace on the same conditions and forged with two reductions of 50 mm each (33% - total relative deformation) with 180 degrees among them. After air cooling, the samples were heated up to promote a stress relief and were cut at a position 150 mm from the edge of the hole. Output variables were the area of the hole, widening and lengthening. The sample forged with the combination of die AC, with funnel die at the top and forging table at the bottom and the soaking time of 7 hours had the hole closed. For all combinations of dies, the soaking time of 7 hours led to a lower area of the hole, higher widening and lengthening than for 11hours soak time.

Na engenharia em geral existem técnicas consagradas de construção e materiais com comportamentos exaustivamente estudados para um melhor aproveitamento de suas características a favor do engenheiro. Pode-se dizer que uma construção está cada vez mais integrada com o meio ambiente, tanto na economia de materiais quanto no reaproveitamento dos mesmos. O uso mais racional dos materiais também é uma importante alternativa para minimizar custos em uma obra, tais como transporte, escolha do material mais adequado a ser utilizado, tanto por suas características quanto por sua disponibilidade de uso. Já foram realizadas e ainda hoje têm sido realizadas inúmeras pesquisas sobre solos artificialmente cimentados na Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, visando seu emprego como camada de suporte para fundações superficiais, no encapsulamento de solos contaminados e como barreiras de contenção de contaminação. Analisando as características mecânicas de areia fina artificialmente cimentada, o objetivo desta pesquisa é verificar a validade do uso do fator vazios/cimento na estimativa da resistência à compressão simples, rigidez inicial, resistência à compressão triaxial em condições drenadas com medidas de G0, comportamento tensão-dilatância e comportamento tensão-deformação da areia de Osório. Para tanto foi verificado que o fator vazios/cimento mostrou-se ser um parâmetro muito eficaz e confiável no que diz respeito à previsão de comportamento do material para dosagem de solo-cimento, em projetos geotécnicos que utilizem a areia de Osório. / In traditional engineering, there are special construction techniques and exhausted studies in materials behavior, for a better employment of it due to the characteristics by the engineer. Today, constructions are increasingly integrated in the environment, both in the economy as in the reuse of materials from them. The more rational use of materials is also important alternative to minimize costs in a work such as transportation, choice of the most appropriate material to be used, either by their characteristics, or their availability for use. Many researches have been made until today on artificially cemented soils in the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, targeting their employment as layer of support for foundations surface in the encapsulation of contaminated soil and barriers of contamination containment. Analyzing the mechanical characteristics of fine artificially cemented sand, the objective of this research is to verify the validity of the use of the void/cement ratio in the estimation of the unconfined compressive strength, initial stiffness, triaxial compressive strength in drained conditions with measures of shear modulus (G0), stress-dilatancy behavior and stress-strain behavior of the Osório sand. Thus was verified that the void/cement ratio has proven to be a very effective and reliable parameter regarding prediction of material behavior for soil-cement, dosage in geotechnical projects that use the sand of Osório.

Na engenharia geotécnica o principal material utilizado, o solo, é complexo e muito variável, sendo que nem sempre satisfaz as necessidades da obra a ser realizada. Com a constante busca de soluções que proporcionem melhoria no solo, redução de custos e preservação dos recursos naturais, o aproveitamento de resíduos vem se destacando, como é o caso da utilização da cinza volante na estabilização de solos com cal. Contudo, ainda não existem metodologias de dosagem dessas misturas baseadas em critérios mais racionais, como a relação água/cimento para o concreto. Assim, esta pesquisa tem como objetivo quantificar a influência das variáveis de interesse quantidade de cal, quantidade de cinza volante, porosidade e do tempo de cura sobre a resistência de um solo estabilizado com cal e cinza volante, verificando a adequação do uso da relação vazios/cal na estimativa da resistência à compressão simples destas misturas. Para isso foram realizados ensaios de compressão simples e medidas de sucção matricial. Os resultados demonstram que o aumento da quantidade de cal e cinza volante, do peso específico aparente seco e do tempo de cura provoca o aumento da sua resistência à compressão simples. Sendo que, a resistência à compressão simples cresce linearmente com o aumento da quantidade de cal e exponencialmente com a redução da sua porosidade. Assim, verifica-se que, a relação vazios/cal, definida pela razão entre a porosidade da mistura compactada e o teor volumétrico de cal, ajustado por um expoente, demonstra ser um parâmetro adequado na estimativa da resistência à compressão simples das misturas estudadas. Além disso, a existência de relações únicas e distintas no controle da resistência à compressão simples do solo estudado em função da porosidade, do teor volumétrico de cal e da quantidade de cinza volante para 28, 60 e 90 dias de cura mostrou-se muito eficiente para relações de dosagem. Contudo, a análise estatística dos dados obtidos em um experimento é de extrema importância. Uma metodologia utilizada para analisar estes dados é a metodologia de Projeto de Experimentos, que é apoiada fortemente em conceitos estatísticos, destinada a otimizar o planejamento, a execução e análise de um experimento. Assim, a análise a ser realizada neste experimento baseia-se em um projeto fatorial completo que investiga todas as combinações de níveis dos fatores controláveis quantidade de cal, quantidade de cinza volante, porosidade e tempo de cura. Os resultados demonstram, a partir da análise da variância, que todos os fatores controláveis escolhidos no experimento são significativos, bem como todas as interações entre eles. A metodologia de Projeto de Experimentos mostrou-se eficiente na determinação de quais fatores intervenientes são importantes para o fenômeno em estudo. / The main material used in the geotechnical engineering, the soil, is complex and highly variable, and does not always meet the needs of the work to be performed. With the constant search for solutions that provide soil improvement, costs reduction and natural resources preservation, the waste recovery has been increasing, such as the use of fly ash in the soils stabilization with lime. However, there are still no dosage methods of these mixtures based on more rational criteria such as the water/cement ratio for the concrete. Thus, this research aims to quantify the influence of variables of interest lime amount, the fly ash quantity, porosity and curing time on the strength of soil stabilized with lime and fly ash, verifying the adaptation of the use of the voids/lime ratio in the estimation of unconfined compression strength of these mixtures. Unconfined compression strength tests and measurement of matric suction were carried out in present work. The results show that increasing lime and/or fly ash amount, dry unit weight and curing time has as consequence the increase of unconfined compression strength. Unconfined compression strength increases linearly with the increase of lime amount and exponentially with the reduction of its porosity. The voids/lime ratio, defined as the ratio of the compacted mixture porosity and the lime volumetric content, adjusted by an exponent, proves to be an appropriate parameter to estimate the unconfined compression strength of the soil-ash-lime studied. Furthermore, the existence of unique and distinct relationships in the control of unconfined compression strength of the soil studied as a function of porosity, lime volumetric content and fly ash quantity for 28, 60 and 90 days of curing was very efficient for dosage relationships. However, the statistical analysis of data from an experiment is utmost importance. A methodology to analyze these data is the methodology of Design of Experiments, which is strongly supported by statistical concepts, designed to optimize the planning, the implementation and analysis of an experiment. The analysis to be performed in this experiment is based on a complete factorial design to investigate all combinations of levels of controllable factors lime amount, fly ash quantity, porosity, and time curing. The results show, from the analysis of variance, that all controllable factors chosen in the experiment and all interactions between them are significant. The methodology of Design of Experiments was efficient in determining which involved factors are important for the phenomenon under study.