Doctor of Philosophy(PhD) / In eastern Australia, Vertosols are widely utilised for the production of irrigated cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) due to their inherent fertility and large water–holding capacity. However, irrigated agriculture in eastern Australia is faced with a decline in the availability of good quality irrigation water sources i.e. waters with low electrolyte concentrations and small Na+ contributions. Consequently, alternative water resources that contain larger contributions of Na+ are becoming increasingly relevant as potential irrigation sources. It is known that the application of Na+ rich waters as irrigation has the potential to increase the Na+ content of the soil, and that this will affect the structural condition of Vertosols. However, the extent to which these poor quality water resources will influence the structural characteristics of different Vertosols is unknown. In addition to this knowledge gap, there is currently no suitable predictor of dispersive behaviour for this soil type, particularly where Vertosols are irrigated with different water quality solutions. The research conducted in this study aimed to characterise the impact of different increments of water quality on the structural stability of different Vertosols. Once this was concluded, the study looked to assess the impact of irrigation water quality on the structural stability, structural form and soil water retention properties of intact soil columns. Knowledge of the structural stability of the soils investigated was then used to derive a model describing the impact of water quality on the structural stability of different cotton producing soils. To achieve the aims nine different soil profiles were sampled from the Bourke, lower Gwydir, Hillston and lower Namoi cotton–producing regions. Eight of these soils are Grey and Black Vertosols with clay phyllosilicate suites dominated to different extents by 2:1 expanding clays, and the ninth soil is an illitic Red Vertosol containing small contributions of 2:1 expanding clays. The soils investigated have ESPs that range between 1 and 10, ECs of 0.1 to 1.2 dS m-1 and CECeff values that are largest for those soils that contain more 2:1 expanding clays. This study shows that the clay phyllosilicate suite of different Vertosols is the primary determinant of structural stability, structural form and soil water retention properties. For example, the Gwydir and Namoi soils contain more 2:1 expanding lattice phyllosilicate clays, have the largest CECeff values of all nine soils and are the most dispersive after all applied immersion treatments. The Bourke and Hillston soils contain less 2:1 expanding lattice clay, have smaller CECeff values and are generally more stable. Irrigation of structurally–intact soils with solutions of larger SARw resulted in larger exchangeable Na+ contents for each soil (and larger ESPs) and smaller contributions of exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+. For each soil, larger ESPs are reflected by decreased stability, but generally the soils dominated by 2:1 expansive clays are much less stable than the soils containing smaller contributions of these clay mineral types. Irrigating the structurally–intact Vertosols dominated by 2:1 expansive clays generally resulted in structural form attributes that do not indicate any impact of the applied water treatments, but the Vertosols with less of these mineral types tend to have less desirable structural form attributes after irrigation with solutions of larger Na+ content. Similarly, where the water retention properties of two soils were assessed, the illitic Red Vertosol has less structural pore space after treatment using the large SARw solutions, while the other soil (a Black Vertosol dominated by 2:1 expansive clays) does not show any differences between water retention properties that can be linked to irrigation water quality. These results were clarified for the water retention properties by the assessment of pore–solid space relations, which show both these soils to contain less solid space after irrigation with clean water or solutions of large SARw. This is attributed to increased swelling of clays in the presence of larger Na+ contributions, but both soils have different structural arrangements as shown by the water retention properties and structural form assessment. The red illitic Vertosol shows signs of structural collapse, while the black Vertosol maintains its structural arrangement. Finally, a model describing the structural stability of different Vertosols was developed from the stability assessment of soils, both in different water quality treatments and after the irrigation of structurally–intact columns. The model presented uses a surface response function to describe the impact of increased ECw and SARw of irrigation solutions on soil stability after immersion according to specific soil physico–chemical attributes. In this model increased exchangeable Na+, SAR and a larger CECeff (and consequently, an increased proportion of 2:1 swelling clays) are associated with increases in clay dispersion, while a smaller Ca2+:Mg2+ ratio, EC and less total clay are associated with decreases in clay dispersion.

Thesis (M.Eng.Sc)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2000? / Bibliography :leaves 158-171. A monitoring program, funded by the South Australian government (through the former MFP Development Corporation), was established to monitor the quality and quantity of storm water entering and leaving the wetland. This study formed part of the funded program. Simple regression models were developed; and will assist in the monitoring of performance of the wetland to alleviate the pollutant load into the Barker Inlet.

Thesis (M.Eng.Sc.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2000? / Corrigenda pasted onto front end-paper. The CD contains Excel spreadsheets containing data collected. Bibliography: leaves 209-222.

The aim of this thesis was to document the various stages of restoration Návežný Pond ? ?Návesný? in the cadastral Branišov. The revitalization was used Operating Environment Programme, Priority Axis 6.4. - Optimization of the landscape. The hydrological parameters were monitored pond dredging, restoration of security overflow and bypass sewer. The revitalization was to increase the retention capacity of the pond using pond sediment extraction and subsequently by increased flood protection. Another important part of the revitalization is to restore the old defunct sewer bypass construction and safety overflow for the flood. Dredging is important to perform due to animal hygiene pond environment, biodiversity ecosystem pond, retention pond production capability and protection against floods. Due to the long-term return on investment is appropriate to use financial aid as grants. For the evaluation of most subsidies have been compared three grant degrees.

Orientador: José Eduardo Corá / Banca: Marlene Cristina Alves / Banca: Paulo Leonel Libardi / Banca: José Carlos Barbosa / Banca: Marcílio Vieira Martins Filho / Resumo: Avaliar o nível de degradação imposta pelo uso agrícola tornou-se fundamental para estabelecer estratégias de manejo sustentáveis que mantenham a qualidade dos solos. A hipótese desse trabalho foi a de que o Latossolo Vermelho argiloso, em sequências de culturas de verão e inverno sob sistema de semeadura direta de longa duração, pode ter sua produtividade e qualidade física influenciada segundo o esquema de rotação de culturas adotado. O presente estudo teve como objetivos: i) determinar o número mínimo de tensões para a determinação da curva de retenção de água no solo de maneira acurada e em menor tempo; ii) determinar o índice S e caracterizar as transformações nos atributos do solo e iii) verificar a qualidade do solo correlacionando o índice S com os atributos físicos do solo e com a produtividade das culturas. O delineamento utilizado foi o de blocos em faixas com três repetições. Os tratamentos foram constituídos pela combinação de dois fatores: quatro sequências de culturas de verão (milho em monocultura - MV; soja em monocultura - SV; rotação soja/milho - RT; e rotação arroz/feijão/algodão - AF); e sete culturas de inverno (milho; girassol; nabo forrageiro; milheto; guandu, sorgo e crotalária). As camadas de solo foram avaliadas nas profundidades de 0-0,1; 0,1-0,2; e 0,2-0,3 m. O conteúdo de água foi medido nas tensões de 0; 10; 20; 40; 60; 80; 100; 200; 300; 500; 700; 1000; 3000; 5000 e 15000 hPa. O índice S foi determinado a partir dos parâmetros ajustados ao modelo de van Genuchten, e os atributos físicos do solo foram avaliados em função do esquema de rotação de culturas. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância (teste F) e suas médias comparadas pelo teste de Scott-Knott (5 % de probabilidade). As curvas de retenção de água (CRA) ajustadas a partir das tensões: 0; 100; 300; 1000 e 15000 hPa ou 0; 80; 300; 700 e ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Assess the degradation level imposed by the agricultural use has become essential to establish sustainable management practices to keep soil quality. The hypothesis of this study was that a Red Latosol (Oxisol), in summer crops sequences and winter crops sequences under no-tillage system of long duration, can have its physical quality and yield influenced according crop rotation. This study aimed to: i) determine the minimum number of tensions to determine the water retention curve (WRC) so accurately and in less time, ii) determine the index S and characterize soil attributes changes, and iii) verify the soil quality by the correlation between the index S and the soil physical attributes and crop yield. The experiment had a complete, in split block design with three replications. The summer crop sequences consisting the main plots were the following: MM - maize monocrop (Zea mays L.); SS - soybean monocrop (Glycine max L. Merrill); SM - soybean/maize rotation, both intercropped every other year; and RBC - rice/bean/cotton rotation, with rice (Oryza sativa L.), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in rotation. Winter crops consisted of maize, sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), oilseed radish (Raphanus sativus L.), millet (Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp), grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.). In each growing season, the same winter crop was sown in the same plot. Soil samples were collected at layers 0-0.1, 0.1-0.2, and 0.2-0.3 m. The water content was measured at tensions 0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200, 300, 500, 700, 1000, 3000, 5000 and 15000 hPa. The index S was determined from van Genuchten equation parameters and soil physical attributes were evaluated according crop rotation. Variance analysis for data was considered for statistical procedures and the means were ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Submitted by Socorro Pontes (socorrop@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-06-28T13:32:56Z No. of bitstreams: 1 LyzandraLAL_DISSERT.pdf: 1553694 bytes, checksum: 3b2dce61aa34ba06fdc0df889642bc15 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-28T13:32:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LyzandraLAL_DISSERT.pdf: 1553694 bytes, checksum: 3b2dce61aa34ba06fdc0df889642bc15 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-22 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Considering the abusive use of humectant agents in frozen seafood processing, and a possible relationship between the pH parameter and the phosphate food grade additive, the objective of the present study was to evaluate if there is a correlation between the pH of the tuna meat and different concentrations and time of contact of food additive phosphate. The tuna fillets (average of 225 g) were immersed in cold solutions (5°C) of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) and phosphates blend (concentrations) at concentrations of 3, 5 and 10% (fillet:solution ratio of 1: 1; w:v) at 30, 60 and 120 minutes. Water was used as the control group. After immersion, the samples were drained, weighed (yield calculation), frozen in ultrafreezer (-35ºC for 24 h) and stored (-35ºC) for 15 days. After this period, the samples were thawed (5°C, 24 hours), drained for 5 minutes, and weighed (yield calculation). After thawing, samples were grilled (200°C for 3 minutes on each side) and weighed (yield calculation). Samples were withdrawn after each step (immersion, thawing and cooking) and submitted to pH, phosphate (P2O5) moisture and protein analysis. The yield (gain and loss weight) was determined by the weight of the samples before and after the treatments (immersion, thawing and cooking). All food additives used in the present study (STPP and Blend) demonstrated their efficacy in water retention after immersion, thawing and cooking. There was a gradual increase in moisture content (after immersion in solutions of STPP and Blend), and a consequent increase in moisture/protein ratio suggesting a new parameter to be considered as indicative use of humectant agents in seafood. There was a gradual increase in pH and residual phosphate (P2O5) in all treatments, and still remained below the limits established by national (pH) and international (P2O5) legislation. A linear correlation was observed between pH and P2O5 values, which may become a parameter to be considered as indicative use of humectant agents (phosphates) in seafood. From the results of experiments, we suggest a critical review on the current issue, and those possible changes can be evaluated in the official parameters as indicators of abusive use of the phosphate additive in seafood and to combat economic fraud in the frozen products. It should be emphasized that these suggestions should be the focus of the collaborative study for its validation / Considerando o uso abusivo de agentes umectantes no processamento de pescado congelado, e uma possível relação entre o parâmetro pH e o aditivo fosfato, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar se existe correlação entre o pH da carne do atum e diferentes concentrações e tempo de contato com o aditivo alimentar fosfato. Os filés de atum (média de 225 g) foram imersos em soluções refrigeradas (5°C) de tripolifosfato de sódio (TPF) e mistura de fosfato (blend) nas concentrações 3, 5 e 10% (proporção filé:solução de 1:1; p:v), por 30, 60 e 120 minutos. Como grupo controle utilizou-se água. Após a imersão, as amostras foram drenadas, pesadas (cálculo de rendimento), congeladas em ultrafreezer (-35ºC por 24 h) e armazenadas (-35ºC) por 15 dias. Após esse período, as amostras foram descongeladas (5°C, 24 horas), drenadas por 5 minutos, pesadas (cálculo de rendimento). Após o descongelamento, as amostras foram grelhadas (200ºC por 3 minutos em cada lado) e pesadas (cálculo do rendimento). Amostras foram retiradas após cada etapa (imersão, descongelamento e cocção) e submetidas às análises de pH, fosfato (P2O5), umidade e proteína. O rendimento (ganho/perda de peso) foi determinado pelo peso das amostras antes e após os tratamentos (imersão, descongelamento e cocção). Todos os aditivos alimentares utilizados no presente estudo (TPF e Blend) demonstraram sua eficácia na retenção de água após imersão, descongelamento e cocção. Observou-se um aumento gradual dos teores de umidade (após imersão em soluções de TPF e Blend), e consequente aumento na relação umidade/proteína que sugere um novo parâmetro a ser considerado como indicativo uso de agentes umectantes no pescado. Observou-se um aumento gradual do pH e do fosfato residual (P2O5) em todos os tratamentos, e ainda permaneceram abaixo dos limites estabelecidos pela legislação nacional (pH) e internacional (P2O5). Observou-se correlação linear entre os valores de pH e fosfato (P2O5) o qual pode se tornar um parâmetro a ser considerado como indicativo uso de agentes umectantes (fosfato) no pescado. A partir dos resultados dos experimentos, sugerimos uma revisão crítica sobre o tema, e que possíveis mudanças possam ser avaliadas nos parâmetros oficiais como indicadores de uso abusivo do aditivo fosfato em pescado e combater uma fraude econômica nos produtos congelados. Ressalta-se que essas sugestões devem ser o foco do estudo colaborativo para sua validação / 2017-06-28

Possibility of water and nutrient retention increase in agricultural landscape on example of Třeboňsko area is subject of PhD thesis presented here by Mgr. Richard Lhotský. PhD thesis is divided into three main chapters that try to answer three basic questions: 1. How far is possible to increase landscape water retention using fishponds? 2. Large amount of nutrient and soil leach arable land, both causing surface water euthrophication and a bigger sedimentation in fishponds. Is it possible to moderate these harmful effects? 3. If wetlands became a part of landscape features how to utilize plant biomass from these areas. Fishponds or even whole fishpond system is a specific component of czech rural landscape and fulfill several important functions. Water accumulation and retention are the most important considering the thesis ? fishponds collect water from a catchment area and also collect floodwaves. Current agriculture based on originally steppe crop needs amelioration. In spite lot of positive features we have to bear in mind that water drainage systems increase mineralization of an organic matter in soil and nutrient loss which might be economically important as well as decrease of surface water quality due to the euthphication. Wetlands and small water bodies (fishponds) may play important role as a nutrient trap in agricultural catchment areas, reuse them and prevent their loss from a landscape and whole Czech Republic. It is necessary to solve a utilization of plant biomass from nutrient and water retention areas and use that in biogas plants seems to be one of the most promising.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:33:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-01-27Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T18:45:39Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 jorge_rf_dr_jabo.pdf: 756534 bytes, checksum: 50e1dc7caa63768259f9a4b2311a51b1 (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Avaliar o nível de degradação imposta pelo uso agrícola tornou-se fundamental para estabelecer estratégias de manejo sustentáveis que mantenham a qualidade dos solos. A hipótese desse trabalho foi a de que o Latossolo Vermelho argiloso, em sequências de culturas de verão e inverno sob sistema de semeadura direta de longa duração, pode ter sua produtividade e qualidade física influenciada segundo o esquema de rotação de culturas adotado. O presente estudo teve como objetivos: i) determinar o número mínimo de tensões para a determinação da curva de retenção de água no solo de maneira acurada e em menor tempo; ii) determinar o índice S e caracterizar as transformações nos atributos do solo e iii) verificar a qualidade do solo correlacionando o índice S com os atributos físicos do solo e com a produtividade das culturas. O delineamento utilizado foi o de blocos em faixas com três repetições. Os tratamentos foram constituídos pela combinação de dois fatores: quatro sequências de culturas de verão (milho em monocultura - MV; soja em monocultura - SV; rotação soja/milho - RT; e rotação arroz/feijão/algodão - AF); e sete culturas de inverno (milho; girassol; nabo forrageiro; milheto; guandu, sorgo e crotalária). As camadas de solo foram avaliadas nas profundidades de 0-0,1; 0,1-0,2; e 0,2-0,3 m. O conteúdo de água foi medido nas tensões de 0; 10; 20; 40; 60; 80; 100; 200; 300; 500; 700; 1000; 3000; 5000 e 15000 hPa. O índice S foi determinado a partir dos parâmetros ajustados ao modelo de van Genuchten, e os atributos físicos do solo foram avaliados em função do esquema de rotação de culturas. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância (teste F) e suas médias comparadas pelo teste de Scott-Knott (5 % de probabilidade). As curvas de retenção de água (CRA) ajustadas a partir das tensões: 0; 100; 300; 1000 e 15000 hPa ou 0; 80; 300; 700 e... / Assess the degradation level imposed by the agricultural use has become essential to establish sustainable management practices to keep soil quality. The hypothesis of this study was that a Red Latosol (Oxisol), in summer crops sequences and winter crops sequences under no-tillage system of long duration, can have its physical quality and yield influenced according crop rotation. This study aimed to: i) determine the minimum number of tensions to determine the water retention curve (WRC) so accurately and in less time, ii) determine the index S and characterize soil attributes changes, and iii) verify the soil quality by the correlation between the index S and the soil physical attributes and crop yield. The experiment had a complete, in split block design with three replications. The summer crop sequences consisting the main plots were the following: MM – maize monocrop (Zea mays L.); SS – soybean monocrop (Glycine max L. Merrill); SM – soybean/maize rotation, both intercropped every other year; and RBC – rice/bean/cotton rotation, with rice (Oryza sativa L.), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in rotation. Winter crops consisted of maize, sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), oilseed radish (Raphanus sativus L.), millet (Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp), grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.). In each growing season, the same winter crop was sown in the same plot. Soil samples were collected at layers 0-0.1, 0.1-0.2, and 0.2-0.3 m. The water content was measured at tensions 0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 200, 300, 500, 700, 1000, 3000, 5000 and 15000 hPa. The index S was determined from van Genuchten equation parameters and soil physical attributes were evaluated according crop rotation. Variance analysis for data was considered for statistical procedures and the means were ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:28:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2006-02-24Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:18:07Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 komiyama_cm_me_botfmvz.pdf: 365903 bytes, checksum: 504da196f70e8cb733e0666e2460fef9 (MD5) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / Foram realizados dois ensaios, sendo que o Ensaio 1 teve por objetivo avaliar as características de qualidade da carne de frangos de corte de coloração pálida e comparar com a de coloração normal e, o Ensaio 2, avaliar as diferenças sensoriais destes tipos de carnes. Para o Ensaio 1, foram coletados 52 filés pálidos e normais selecionados na linha de abate baseado pela sua coloração. Foi realizada a mensuração do pH, temperatura, cor e valor R nos tempos de zero, 4 e 24 horas post-mortem. As amostras foram encaminhadas ao laboratório da FMVZ/UNESP, campus de Botucatu e após 24 horas post-mortem procedeu-se as demais análises de qualidade de carne em que foram avaliadas as características de perda por exsudação, capacidade de retenção (CRA) e absorção de água, perdas de peso por cozimento (PPC) e força de cisalhamento. Para o Ensaio 2, foram coletados 40 filés pálidos e normais de abatedouro comercial, e após 24 horas post-mortem procedeu-se a avaliação das características sensoriais. Para os filés de peitos de frangos de coloração pálida, a glicólise teve inicio com o valor de pH 6,86 e atingiu pH final 5,73 às 24 horas post-mortem enquanto que os filés de peitos de coloração normal apresentaram pH inicial de 6,80 e pH 24 horas post-mortem de 5,85. Houve diferença significativa (p 0,05) entre os filés pálidos e normal para os parâmetros de pH, valor L*, teor de vermelho, CRA, PPC e desnaturação protéica.

Submitted by ADEMIR RIBEIRO MENDONÇA null (33182912852) on 2018-02-08T15:21:57Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação de Ademir Ribeiro Mendonça.pdf: 1590154 bytes, checksum: b3e14a029c00dc98399df1a34c748eb1 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Alexandra Maria Donadon Lusser Segali null (alexmar@fcav.unesp.br) on 2018-02-09T12:42:32Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 mendonça_ar_me_jabo.pdf: 1590154 bytes, checksum: b3e14a029c00dc98399df1a34c748eb1 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-02-09T12:42:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 mendonça_ar_me_jabo.pdf: 1590154 bytes, checksum: b3e14a029c00dc98399df1a34c748eb1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-12-08 / Os resíduos de carvão vegetal podem ser utilizados de forma eficiente na agricultura, quando aplicados ao solo, em doses e granulometria adequadas exercem excelente desempenho aos vegetais. O trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de estudar a interação entre doses e granulometrias de carvão vegetal de Eucalyptus citriodora em solo argiloso, na produção de cenoura híbrida de verão cultivar Mariana. O experimento foi conduzido em casa de vegetação na cidade de Bebedouro, SP. Com 16 tratamentos em esquema fatorial com 5x3+1, sendo 5 granulometrias (1 a 2 mm, 2 a 4 mm, 4 a 8 mm, 8 a 16 mm e 16 a 32 mm) combinadas com 3 doses (25, 50 e 75% em volume de carvão vegetal) mais controle (somente solo), com 4 repetições, em vasos de 8 litros dispostos num delineamento inteiramente ao acaso. Foi avaliada a retenção de água no início e final do ensaio, determinado o crescimento da parte aérea aos 30, 45, 60, 75 e 90 dias após emergência, bem como massa fresca e seca da raiz e parte aérea e dimensões das cenouras na colheita. Observou-se que o melhor desempenho das plantas ocorre na combinação de 50% (v/v) de carvão vegetal com a granulometria de 2 a 4 mm. No início do cultivo as plantas crescem melhor no solo, mas apresentam desempenho superior nos tratamentos com carvão vegetal a partir de 60 dias após emergência. / Charcoal wastes can be used efficiently in agriculture if well managed. With this purpose, this research aimed to study the interaction between dose and size of fine coal particles in clay soil, for carrot production. The experiment was conducted with 16 treatments in a 5x3 + 1 factorial scheme (5 granulometry: 1 to 2 mm, 2 to 4 mm, 4 to 8mm, 8 to 16 mm and 16 to 32 mm, combined with 3 doses:25 , 50% and 75% by volume of coal) plus control (soil only), with 4 replications. Each experimental unit was composed by a pot with 8 L capacity, and the assay was arranged in a completely randomized design. It were determined the water retention in the soil, the plants height measured at 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days after plants emergence, the fresh and dry mass of the root and plant shoot and the dimensions of the carrots at harvest. It has been observed that the best performance of the plants occurs in the combination of 50% (v/v) of coal with the fraction of 2 to 4 mm particle size. Plants at initial growth phases develop better in pure soil, however in the final growth phases shows superior performance in treatments containing charcoal.