A descriptive case study approach and 34 indicators was used to examine the socio-economic impacts of whale watching tourism in the Laguna San Ignacio (LSI) World Heritage Site - located within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in Baja California Sur, Mexico. The framework measured both the socio-economic changes, and the economic viability of the local and regional operators. This approach led to a detailed understanding of the underlying, and often complex, inter-related factors that shaped the ecotourism development in LSI between 1994 and 2002. It identified strengths and weaknesses of current ecotourism development making it a valid tool for evaluating and improving these activities in any biosphere reserve. More specifically the objectives were to examine: 1. How existing ecotourism operations and their activities in the LSI have changed since 1994; 2. Whether these changes have made ecotourism a more viable socio-economic development alternative for the local communities; and 3. Which strategies may be useful in overcoming identified barriers to further socio-economic benefits both from existing and future ecotourism activities. The results strongly suggested that the benefits from ecotourism improved significantly between 1994 and 2002. Economically this was reflected in growth of visitor numbers (50%), employment (100%) and local and regional revenue approximately 70% (or 55% in real terms adjusting for inflation). Social benefits were seen in more cooperation among previous antagonistic stakeholders; a wider distribution of ecotourism benefits; some improvement in living standards and increasing local support for the Reserve. Politically, local stakeholders became more empowered through involvement in tourism related management activities. The viability of the local and regional operators also improved significantly as they became more sophisticated in their product offerings, enhanced their facilities and gained a market share of ecotourism relative to the foreign operators. These improvements were particular true for the operators that sold package tours. However, the analyses also revealed a number of barriers with the most important ones being: • Unresolved historic land use conflicts over rights to land with ecotourism possibilities; • Lack of activities diversification possibilities outside the tourism season; • Stagnating visitor numbers; • Uneven business skills among operators; • Poor marketing and promotional efforts; • Insufficient ecotourism infrastructure; • A proposed ecotourism tax; • Low profit margin of the ecotourism operators; and • Lack of funding for further investments To alleviate these threats and barriers 13 general strategies were identified. An elaboration of these resulted in 39 concrete operational strategies on how potentially to implement them.

This thesis examines the human and animal dimensions of whale-watching and develops a framework for management of the humpback whale-watching industry in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. The short-term responses of humpback whales to whale-watching vessels during their southward migration on the south coast of NSW were assessed. The behaviour of pods was recorded from commercial whale-watching vessels during tours and compared to pods in the absence of vessels observed from shore in the same area. Pod sizes and composition were typical of southward migrating whales. Calf pods were more sensitive to the presence of vessels than non-calf pods. Whilst there was a longer dive time and a greater percentage of time spent submerged by whales in the presence of vessels, there were no associated changes in respiration intervals. Some surface behaviours were suppressed in the presence of vessels. Surface-active behaviours were prevalent in this study which indicates that social interactions amongst conspecifics are common during the southern migration. Feeding pods were observed on 24.5% of all whale-watching trips and during 14% of all observations made from shore. South-eastern NSW is probably a significant supplemental feeding ground for migrating whales. Feeding behaviour did not alter in the presence of vessels but the time between feeding lunges increased when vessels were closer than 100 m and when more than one vessel was present. The demographics, expectations, experience and satisfaction of land-based and boat-based whale-watchers in NSW were assessed by a questionnaire to participants. Land-based whale-watchers had high and often unrealistic expectations about their whale-watching experience and were moderately satisfied. Boat-based whale-watchers had high, but often realistic expectations of their experience and were highly satisfied. Satisfaction was a function of the degree to which expectations were met, the proximity of whales, the numbers of whales, their behavioural displays and the level of information available on whales. Whale-watchers showed limited increase in their knowledge and conservation-oriented behaviours over the long term. Current education about whales requires better structure and clearer conservation objectives. This study identifies research, education and vessel management as three fundamental components for the sustainable management of the whale-watching industry, and makes recommendations incorporating these components.

The growing industry of whale-watching is allowing increasing numbers of people access to whales in their natural environment, and constitutes a non-consumptive use of the whales compared to whaling. At the same time, questions are often raised about the hidden effects of whale-watching on the whales. A population of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) which spends the summer feeding in Clayoquot Sound, on the West Coast of Vancouver Island, is regularly observed by whale-watchers from the nearby tourist centre of Tofino. Concern among whale-watching business operators and tourists about the possible effects of whale-watching on the feeding whales was heightened in the years preceding this study by an apparent northward movement of the whales, taking them farther from the Tofino, the point of departure for whale-watching tours. This study attempts to explain this apparent trend by finding out whether the whales' short-term behaviour is affected by the presence of whale-watching vessels, and by examining their short and long-term behaviour in the wider context of some of the features of their environment. Whales were observed from a small research vessel for three feeding seasons, in five locations within the area known as Clayoquot Sound. The whales' ventilations were recorded continuously and their location and the number of whale-watching vessels present was recorded at regular intervals. The whales' benthic prey was sampled in all three seasons and their planktonic prey in 1995. A series of variables were calculated from the ventilation data and compared to the number of vessels. The whales' dive behaviour was correlated much more strongly with feeding location than with vessel number. Even with these two factors taken into account, much of the variation in their behaviour remains unaccounted for. Because of this, although the behavioural change in the presence of vessels is statistically significant, there is reason to doubt whether it is biologically significant. The effects of feeding location are probably a composite of the effects of depth, prey type and other factors which are difficult to measure. Of the two main components, prey type appears to have a greater effect than depth on gray whale behaviour. Interaction exists between the effects of site and those of whale-watch vessels, meaning that the effects of vessels are different at different sites. The general pattern is that the effects of vessel presence are more pronounced in shallow sites than in deep, although there are some exceptions to this trend. Gray whale prey shows considerable variation in location, density and composition from year to year. The long-term patterns of gray whale habitat use more closely resemble a prey-selection-driven pattern than a pattern of avoidance of whale-watch vessels. The relatively small influence of vessel numbers on gray whale feeding behaviour suggests that the current guidelines in place for whale-watching vessels are effective in limiting disturbance of the whales. The variable nature of their prey supply suggests that gray whales use all the sites in Clayoquot Sound, and that the availability of a diverse selection of prey is necessary for their success in the tertiary feeding grounds. / Graduate

A descriptive case study approach and 34 indicators was used to examine the socio-economic impacts of whale watching tourism in the Laguna San Ignacio (LSI) World Heritage Site - located within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in Baja California Sur, Mexico. The framework measured both the socio-economic changes, and the economic viability of the local and regional operators. This approach led to a detailed understanding of the underlying, and often complex, inter-related factors that shaped the ecotourism development in LSI between 1994 and 2002. It identified strengths and weaknesses of current ecotourism development making it a valid tool for evaluating and improving these activities in any biosphere reserve. More specifically the objectives were to examine: 1. How existing ecotourism operations and their activities in the LSI have changed since 1994; 2. Whether these changes have made ecotourism a more viable socio-economic development alternative for the local communities; and 3. Which strategies may be useful in overcoming identified barriers to further socio-economic benefits both from existing and future ecotourism activities. The results strongly suggested that the benefits from ecotourism improved significantly between 1994 and 2002. Economically this was reflected in growth of visitor numbers (50%), employment (100%) and local and regional revenue approximately 70% (or 55% in real terms adjusting for inflation). Social benefits were seen in more cooperation among previous antagonistic stakeholders; a wider distribution of ecotourism benefits; some improvement in living standards and increasing local support for the Reserve. Politically, local stakeholders became more empowered through involvement in tourism related management activities. The viability of the local and regional operators also improved significantly as they became more sophisticated in their product offerings, enhanced their facilities and gained a market share of ecotourism relative to the foreign operators. These improvements were particular true for the operators that sold package tours. However, the analyses also revealed a number of barriers with the most important ones being: • Unresolved historic land use conflicts over rights to land with ecotourism possibilities; • Lack of activities diversification possibilities outside the tourism season; • Stagnating visitor numbers; • Uneven business skills among operators; • Poor marketing and promotional efforts; • Insufficient ecotourism infrastructure; • A proposed ecotourism tax; • Low profit margin of the ecotourism operators; and • Lack of funding for further investments To alleviate these threats and barriers 13 general strategies were identified. An elaboration of these resulted in 39 concrete operational strategies on how potentially to implement them. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

Whale-watching is a major tourism venture in developed and developing countries around the world. The management and conservation of this industry is dependent on social, economic, and ecological factors, but long-term ecological research is often absent. In this study, I present an example of a mature whale-watching location where research on all three variables is available. The University of Victoria’s Whale Research Lab has studied gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) in Clayoquot Sound, Vancouver Island for over 25 years and I use this information to form the basis for management recommendations that promote sustainable whale-watching practices and other resource use. To do this, I review how whale-watching is managed in Canada, B.C., and Clayoquot Sound, including the legislation and voluntary guidelines that are currently in place, and previous recommendations that have been made. I then analyze how whale-watching is conducted in southern Clayoquot Sound. I quantify boat behaviour with respect to whales and present six indicators of industry pressure that have been related to cetacean disturbance. The 2012 and 2013 seasons had significantly different numbers of whales present, and this was reflected in the fleet behaviour. Whale-watching activities do not appear to alter gray whale foraging efforts between seasons. Results indicated that both industry pressure and vessel behaviour with respect to whales changes depending on the season and the biological dynamics that influence whale presence. Finally, I synthesize findings of the Whale Research Lab in conjunction with my preceding chapters and present five management recommendations to all stakeholders with a vested interest in the continuation of sustainable whale-watching practices in Clayoquot Sound. / Graduate / 0366 / 0329

Bibliography: leaves 378-402. / xviii, 402 leaves : ill. (chiefly col.), maps (chiefly col.) ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Explores the status and nature of interpretation within the Australian whale watching industry, on both a national scale and as it is practiced at three diverse case study sites along the southern coast, and develops strategies which may enable this form of tourism to reach it's highest educative potential / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geographical and Environmental Studies, 2000

The purpose of this study is to examine if the experience of whale watching can lead to increased knowledge of environmental problems. We also want to find out whether increased knowledge in turn could lead to changing environmental attitudes and behaviors. The theoretical framework consists of theories about sustainable tourism, ecotourism and responsible environmental behavior. The paper also has a section where previous research on ecotourism impacts on behavior and attitudes is discussed and subsequently addressed in the analysis section. Data has been collected through a case study where seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with individuals who participated in whale watching. The results show that all respondents had greater knowledge of whales by their experiences, the degree of knowledge was due to respondents' prior knowledge. The respondents did not consider their attitude towards environmental issues has changed considerably by the experience or that it affected their environmental behavior. A number of conclusions were drawn from analysis of empirical data using the selected theories. It seems that it is easier to give people knowledge than to influence them to change their attitudes and it is particularly difficult to say whether the experience of a single ecotourism experience may impact deeply ingrained attitudes and behaviors. Overall, the results suggest that ecotourism experiences to some extent leads to the strengthening of participants' environmental awareness and thus increase their interest in participating in further ecotourism experiences. Through these circular effects, an increased environmental knowledge provided by ecotourism experiences in the longer term can help to develop more responsible environmental attitudes and behavior of individuals. / Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka om upplevelsen av valskådning kan leda till ökad kunskap om miljöproblem. Vi vill också ta reda på om ökad kunskap i sin tur kan leda till förändrade miljömässiga attityder och beteenden. Uppsatsens teoretiska ramverk utgörs av teorier kring hållbar turism, ekoturism och ansvarsfullt miljömässigt beteende. Uppsatsen har även ett avsnitt där tidigare forskning kring ekoturismens inverkan på beteende och attityder diskuteras för att därefter behandlas i analysdelen. Uppsatsens empiri har samlats in genom en kvalitativ studie där sju semistrukturerade intervjuer har genomförts med individer som deltagit i valskådning. Resultaten visar att samtliga respondenter fick ökad kunskap om valar av sina upplevelser, hur hög grad av kunskap berodde dock på respondenternas förkunskap. Respondenterna ansåg inte att deras attityder gentemot miljöfrågor förändrats avsevärt av upplevelsen eller att det påverkat deras miljömässiga beteende. Ett antal slutsatser har dragits utifrån analys av empiri med hjälp av valda teorier. Det verkar som att det är lättare att ge människor kunskap än att påverka dem att ändra sina attityder och det är särskilt svårt att säga om erfarenhet av en enda ekoturistisk upplevelse kan ha effekt på djupt inrotade attityder och beteenden. Sammantaget tyder resultaten på att ekoturistiska erfarenheter till viss del leder till att förstärka deltagarnas miljömedvetenhet och därmed också öka deras intresse för att delta i ytterligare ekoturistiska upplevelser. Genom dessa cirkulära effekter kan ökad miljökunskap som tillhandahålls genom ekoturistiska upplevelser i ett längre perspektiv bidra till att utveckla mer ansvarsfulla miljömässiga attityder och beteenden hos individer.

Aerial surveys were conducted throughout Hervey Bay Marine Park between August and October 1992 and 2004 to determine changes in abundance and distribution of the Eastern Australia humpback whale population in this area. Due to concerns about possible effects of boat traffic on whale distributions associated with a growing whale watching industry, the number and location of vessels were also recorded during these surveys. Throughout the 1992 season, 17 flights were conducted and a total of 41.93 surveys hours were completed, recording 186 pods, and a total of 320 animals. In addition, 392 boats were spotted in the area. During 2004, 10 flights took place with a total of 23.56 survey hours, 203 pods were sighted and a total 388 animals were recorded. In addition 216 boats were spotted in the study area.Results suggested an overall increase in the density of whale sightings from 1992 to 2004. By comparing total numbers for both years normalized to the number of survey hours, it can be seen that the total number of pods and the total number of individuals both increased. In 1992, with 7 more flights and an extra 10 hours on survey, the total number of pods and the total number of whales observed were less than in 2004. The composition of the pods showed a variation throughout both seasons consistent with a known distinctive temporal segregation of humpback whales on their annual migration. The percentage of calves was higher in 2004 than in 1992 consistent with the overall recovery of the eastern Australia population.Boat traffic did not show an effect on whale distributions in either year of the study. However this work provides a baseline for continuing to monitor boat traffic and whale distributions to help ensure that the east Australia whale population will continue to recover together with a sustainable growing whale watching industry.

Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 2008. / Printout. Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the World Wide Web.

abstract: Whale watching has been hailed by environmental non-governmental organizations like Greenpeace and the International Fund for Animal Welfare as a responsible form of tourism that has the potential to enhance conservation outcomes for cetaceans, while also supporting the economic development of coastal communities. Tourism research suggests that while it is possible for whale watching to provide these benefits, it may also have considerable costs to members of host communities and cetaceans. My dissertation sought to gather data on the economic, ecological, and social impacts of whale watching in the Caribbean in order to evaluate the industry's performance in the region. My project thus took the form of three sub-projects. The first used an ordinary least squares analysis to examine the relationship between Caribbean country characteristics and whale watching expenditures. This analysis showed that a country's level of development changes the strength of correlations, that mass tourism development is negatively associated with whale watching profits, and that cetacean biodiversity and whale watching regulations designed to protect cetaceans both had positive relationships with the whale watching industry. In the second sub-project, I developed an index of Caribbean cetacean vulnerability to the negative impacts of whale watching with a traditional literature review informed by systematic methods. The index illustrated that both target and non-target species had vulnerabilities, and that regulations addressing these issues in the Caribbean were lacking overall. Considerable gaps in data were also identified. Finally, I used qualitative interviews in Dominica and the Dominican Republic to gather information on resident perceptions of whale watching. This analysis revealed overall positive perceptions of the industry in both countries, but also uncovered considerable levels of social conflict surrounding whale watching. Taken together, the results of my study suggest that better regulatory structures, investment in the local community, and efforts to maximize cooperation are needed in order for the Caribbean whale watch industry to better serve local communities, while mitigating its impacts on cetaceans. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Environmental Social Science 2017