Compliance is a key feature for the management of non-consumptive wildlife viewing, as it can link management measures to performance and aid in developing recommendations that promote sustainable practices. Whale watching is a prominent wildlife viewing industry that is steadily rising in demand around the world. Managing vessel-cetacean encounters and operator behaviour (both commercial and recreational) is key to limiting impacts on cetaceans, yet the scale of regulatory compliance is often poor or unknown. Although efforts exist to regulate whale watching, challenges arise for the assessment of compliance in marine environments, as they are inherently spatially vast, lack physical boundaries, and can involve mobile stressors (i.e. vessels) and species. Chapter 1 reviews the shift in paradigms from consumptive to non-consumptive activities and highlights challenges for those tasked with managing the growing wildlife tourism industry, and in particular, whale watching. After reviewing a suite of measures prevalent around the world, this chapter then focuses on the Salish Sea’s approach to managing whale watching. This area epitomizes a major whale watching hub and displays complex, multi-jurisdictional and constantly evolving measures. Due to a lack of knowledge in this region, Chapter 2 shifts from theory to practice and assesses regulatory compliance with marine mammal distance regulations from 2018 to 2019 in the Salish Sea. Although compliance was nearly 80%, key drivers including vessel and species type were found to significantly influence non-compliance. Recreational vessels were non-compliant 41.9% of the time and 74.2% of non-compliant encounters occurred around killer whales across both years. The findings of the study demonstrate that case-specific investigation of compliance is necessary as each region is unique in its approach to management. Lastly, recommendations are proposed that can benefit marine managers and policymakers to enhance the performance of measures and subsequently minimize risk to cetaceans. / Graduate

Observation of marine animals in their environment – whale-watching – has grown greatly in recent years, bringing risk to the animals. Of particular concern are harmful impacts on marine mammals, some of which are endangered. As a result, regulations have been developed for their protection, but these conservation measures require enforcement across a broad geographic region, which is difficult due to limited monitoring resources. A ship-borne information transmission system called AIS – Automatic Identification System – can provide information-rich marine vessel movement data that can be used to passively monitor vessels engaged in viewing wildlife, aiding regulatory bodies with compliance enforcement. Few studies explore the use of AIS data to determine when vessels are engaged in wildlife-viewing, and as such little guidance exists on how to implement classification models appropriately. The objective of this thesis is to use AIS data to evaluate the accuracy and utility of existing classification models to detect vessels engaged in observing wildlife, and determine whether information about species being observed can be extracted. Using a control set of observed cetacean encounter data, three classification models were statistically assessed. From this, a hidden Markov model was chosen for detailed analysis in the vicinity surrounding Vancouver Island, B.C., Canada. The resulting analysis concluded that a hidden Markov unsupervised classification approach was feasible for detecting vessel behaviours and differentiating species type. These findings suggest AIS can aid managers and the commercial whale-watching industry in making informed decisions regarding conservation regulations and their compliance. / Graduate / 2022-08-12

Behavioural responses can reveal important fitness trade-offs and ecological traps in evolutionarily novel contexts created by anthropogenic stimuli, and are of increasing conservation concern due to possible links to population-level impacts. This thesis illustrates the use of proxies for energy acquisition and expenditure within multivariate and state-based modelling approaches to quantify the relative time and energetic costs of behavioural disturbance for a deep-diving marine mammal (Physeter macrocephalus) in foraging grounds in Kaikoura Canyon (New Zealand) and near Lofoten Islands (Norway). A conceptual framework is first developed to identify and explore links between individual motivation, condition and external constraints to behavioural disturbance [Chapter 1]. The following chapters then use data from behavioural response studies (BRS) to: 1) derive biologically relevant metrics of behaviour [all chapters], 2) investigate effects of boat-based focal follows and tagging procedures [Chapters 2-3], and 3) relate responses to specific disturbance stimuli (distance, approach, noise) from whale-watching [Chapter 2], naval sonar and playback of presumed natural predator (killer whale Orcinus orca) sounds [Chapter 4]. A novel hidden state model was developed to estimate behavioural budgets of tagged sperm whales from multiple streams of biologging (DTAG) data [Chapter 3]. Sperm whales traded off time spent at foraging depths in a non-foraging and non-resting state in response to both tag boat presence, 1-2 kHz naval sonar (SPL 131-165 rms re 1μPa) and mammal-eating killer whale sound playbacks, indicating that parallel non-lethal costs were incurred in both anthropogenic disturbance and presumed antipredatory contexts. While behavioural responses were highly variable by individual, biologically informed state-based models appeared effective to control for variability in energy proxies across different functional contexts. These results and Chapter 5 “linking buzzes to prey” demonstrate that behavioural context is a signal that can aid understanding of how individual non-lethal disturbance responses can impact fitness.

No description available.

Whale-watching provides economic opportunities worldwide and particularly proliferates in developing countries, such as the Philippines. The sustainability of whale-watching is increasingly debated as these activities also negatively impact cetaceans through changes in behavior, communication, habitat use, morbidity, mortality, and life-history parameters. This study evaluated the total annual cost, revenue, and profit of whale-watching operators in Bais, Philippines, and predicted the changes in the population for spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris with varying levels of whale-watching effort. Total revenue was 3,805,077 PHP ($92,478 USD) while total cost was 5,649,094 PHP ($137,294 USD) with a discount rate of ten percent. The total annual profit of whale-watching in Bais was – 1,844,017 PHP (– $44,817 USD). On average, each operator in Bais lost 160,350 PHP ($3,897 USD) per year from whale-watching. Through time, the spinner dolphin population decreased as it was exposed to more vessels, causing effort to increase, and thus decreased profit for operators. Under current whale-watching effort, the spinner dolphin population was predicted to decrease by 94 percent in 25 years. If Bais reduced effort in their operations to only three vessels whale-watching per day, the spinner dolphin population increased to 80 percent of its initial population size. This was the first study to predict the spinner dolphin population and estimate the total annual profit from whale-watching in Bais, Philippines. It provided data to locals for efficient, profitable, and sustainable decisions in whale-watching operations.

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

This thesis is offered as a contribution to studies of social and cultural change in the Icelandic fisheries and fishing communities. Such changes may be seen as a result of the interplay of internal dynamics with both national and global forces and processes, not least with regard to the impacts of fisheries governance. These changes occur also in an international context of new environmental ideologies and perceptions of marine mammals, with consequences for social dynamics of local resource-use. Here it is argued that the conflicts over the harvesting or conservation of cetaceans can productively be understood from a cultural perspective. The thesis discusses the elevation of whales as symbols of particular value, and the metaphorical and cognitive aspects of, in particular, anthropomorphism, the projection of human motives and values onto animal behaviour, as a significant and effective part of conservation rhetoric and ideology. Specifically, the thesis deals with issues concerning whaling and whale watching along with issues and debates concerning these alternative forms of exploiting marine mammals. It also discusses central questions regarding fisheries governance and rights to fishing with reference to social and economic viability in Icelandic fishing communities. The unifying themes of this thesis are: how marine-mammal issues and controversies and social impacts of fisheries governance form part of globalization processes; how environmental and economic paradigms influence change, particularly in terms of marine-mammal conservation campaigns and market liberalist resource policy; and how these external ideological forces call for responses at local and national levels. The adaptive actions of the human agents and communities involved are described as creative, cumulative and complex. The thesis also highlights the central transformative role of the new regime of private property rights introduced into Icelandic fisheries governance in the 1980s.

No description available.

La gestion du milieu marin pour de multiples usages est une problématique de plus en plus en complexe. La création d’aires marines protégées (AMP) a été désignée comme étant une stratégie efficace afin de concilier la conservation avec les autres usages. Cependant, pour atteindre les objectifs de conservation, un plan de gestion bien défini de même qu’un programme de suivi efficace doivent être instaurés. En 1998, le parc marin du Saguenay–Saint-Laurent (PMSSL) a été créé afin de protéger plusieurs écosystèmes important de l’Estuaire du Saint-Laurent. Une industrie d’observation en mer de baleines en pleine croissance était déjà établie dans la région, qui est également traversé par une voie de navigation commerciale importante. Treize espèces de mammifères marins sont présentes dans la région, parmi lesquelles, quatre espèces de rorquals sont le centre d’intérêt du présent travail : le petit rorqual (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), le rorqual commun (Balaenoptera physalus), le rorqual à bosse (Megaptera novaeangliae) et le rorqual bleu (Balaenoptera musculus). La réduction des risques de collision et des perturbations du comportement susceptibles d’entrainer des conséquences physiologiques constitue un des enjeux majeures pour la conservation des baleines dans cette région. Avant de s’intéresser aux impacts du trafic maritime, des questions de base doivent être étudiées: Combien de baleines utilisent le secteur? Où sont les zones de fortes concentrations? Pour répondre à ces questions, des données d’échantillonnage par distance le long de transect linéaire sur une période de quatre ans (2006-2009) ont été utilisées pour estimer la densité et l’abondance et pour construire un modèle spatiale de la densité (MSD). Les espèces les plus abondantes sont le petit rorqual (45, 95% IC = 34-59) et le rorqual commun (24, 95% IC=18-34), suivi du rorqual bleu (3, 95% IC=2-5) et du rorqual à bosse (2, 95% IC=1-4). Les modèles additifs généralisés ont été utilisées afin de modéliser le nombre d’individus observé par espèce en fonction des variables environnementales. Les MSD ont permis l’identification des zones de concentration de chaque espèce à l’intérieur des limites de la portion de l’estuaire maritime du PMSSL et à valider les abondances estimées à partir des recensements systématiques. De plus, ils ont validé la pertinence de la zone de protection marine de l’estuaire du Saint-Laurent proposée (ZPMESL) pour la conservation du rorqual bleu, une espèce en voie de disparition. Un exercice d’extrapolation a également été effectué afin de prédire les habitats du rorqual bleu à l’extérieur de la zone d’échantillonnage. Les résultats ont montré une bonne superposition avec des jeux de données indépendants. Malgré la nature exploratoire de cet exercice et dans l’attente de meilleures informations, il pourrait servir de base de discussion pour l’élaboration de mesures de gestion afin d’augmenter la protection de l’espèce. Ensuite, les systèmes d’informations géographiques ont été utilisés afin de vérifier le degré de chevauchement entre la navigation commerciale et les résultats des MSD de chaque espèce et l’exercice d’extrapolation. Les analyses ont identifiées les zones de forte cooccurrence entre les navires et les rorquals. Ces résultats démontrent la pertinence des mesures de gestion récemment proposées et ont mené à une recommandation d’ajustement de l’actuel corridor de navigation afin de diminuer le risque de collision. Finalement, le chevauchement avec l’industrie d’observation de baleines a été caractérisé avec des données d’un échantillonnage à partir de points terrestres conduit de 2008 à 2010. Bien que toutes les espèces de rorquals aient été suivies, seulement les résultats concernant les rorquals bleus et les rorquals à bosses sont présentés ici. Pour les rorquals bleus, 14 heures de données d’observation ont été analysées. Les rorquals bleus étaient exposés aux bateaux (<1 km), principalement les zodiacs commerciaux, dans 74 % des intervalles de surface (IS) analysés. L’exposition continue était de 2 à 19 IS et le nombre moyen de bateaux à l’intérieur d’un rayon de 1 km était 2.3 (±2.7, max=14). Lorsqu’en observation de l’animal focal, tous les bateaux commerciaux ont utilisé la zone à l’intérieur de 400 m, enfreignant ainsi le règlement qui prescrit une distance de retrait minimale de 400 m dans le cas d’espèces en voie de disparition. De plus, la variance du taux respiratoire de chaque individu était corrélée avec le pourcentage d’exposition au bateaux (0.73, p<0.05) suggérant une modification comportementale susceptible d’entrainer des conséquences physiologiques. Bien que le rorqual à bosse n’ait pas un statut de conservation critique, sont comportements en fait une cible importante de l’industrie d’observation. Un total de 50.4 heures d’observation du rorqual à bosse a été analysé. Les rorquals à bosse étaient exposés aux bateaux, principalement aux zodiacs commerciaux, pendant 78.5% du temps d’observation. Le nombre moyen de bateaux dans un rayon de 1 km était de 1.9 (±2.3, max=22). L’exposition cumulative aux activités d’observation de baleines peut avoir des conséquences à long terme pour les rorquals. L’application du règlement et des mesures pour augmenter la sensibilisation et le respect de la règlementation actuelle sont nécessaires. Des suggestions pour améliorer la règlementation actuelle sont proposées. Ce travail présente pour la première fois des estimés d’abondance pour l’aire d’étude, améliore les informations disponibles sur les zones de fortes concentrations, donne un appui à l’établissement d’un plan de zonage adéquat à l’intérieur des limites du PMSSL et souligne l’importance de l’établissement de la ZPMESL proposée. Par sa revue compréhensive de la question du trafic maritime en lien avec les rorquals présents dans l’estuaire, cette étude fournit des informations précieuses pour la gestion de ce système socio-écologique complexe. / Management of the marine environment for multiple usages has become increasingly complex. The creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) has been pointed out as a successful strategy for combining conservation with other uses. However, to attain conservation goals, a well-defined management plan and a robust monitoring program need to be set. In 1998, the Saguenay St. Lawrence Marine Park (SSLMP) was decreed to protect important ecosystems of the St. Lawrence River Estuary. A growing whale watching industry was already established in the area which is also crossed by an important shipping lane. Thirteen marine mammal species occur in the area, among them, four baleen species, which are the focus of the present work: minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) and the blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus). Whales’ protection in this area of intensive marine traffic is of concern due to a high collision probability and induced behavioral and physiological changes. Before addressing the effects of the marine traffic, some basic questions needed to be answered: How many baleen whales use the area? Where are their core areas? To answer that, line-transect distance-sampling data collected over four years (2006-2009) were used to estimate density and abundance and to build a spatial density model (SDM). The most abundant species were minke (45, 95% CI=34-59) and fin whales (24, 95% CI=18-34), followed by blue (3, 95% CI=2-5) and humpback whales (2, 95% CI=1-4). Generalized additive models were used to model each species count as a function of space and environmental variables. The SDM allowed the identification of each species core area within the marine portion of the SSLMP, and corroborated the abundance estimates derived from design-based methods. In addition, it corroborated the relevance of the proposed St. Lawrence Estuary Marine Protected (SLEMPA) Area to the conservation of essential habitats of the endangered blue whale. An extrapolation exercise was performed to predict blue whales’ habitats outside the surveyed area. Despite its exploratory nature, the results showed a good match with independent data sets and in the lack of better information could guide the discussion of management measures to enhance species’ protection. Next, Geographic Information System capabilities were used to verify the degree of overlap between the navigation corridor and the resulting SDM of each species and the extrapolation model. The analysis highlighted areas of important co-occurrence of whales and ships, corroborated the adequacy of recently proposed management measures and resulted in a recommendation of adjustment to the current shipping lane in order to decrease collision risk. Finally, the overlap with the whale watching industry was characterized with data from a land-based survey conducted from 2008 to 2010. Although all baleen whale species were tracked, here only results of blue and humpback whales were presented. For blue whales, data from 14 hours of observation were analyzed. Whales were exposed to boats, mainly commercial zodiacs, in 74% of their surface intervals (SI). Continuous exposure ranged from 2 to 19 SI and the mean number of boats within a 1 km radius was 2.3 (±2.7, max=14). A complete lack of compliance with the current whale watching regulations was observed. Additionally, individual blow rate variance was correlated with percentage of exposure to boats (0.73, p<0.05). Although humpback whales do not have a critical conservation status, their intrinsic behaviour makes them a major target to the industry. A total of 50.4 hours of humpback whale observation was analysed. Whales were exposed to boats, mainly commercial zodiacs, during 78.5% of the observation time. The mean number of boats within a 1 km radius was 1.9 (±2.3, max=22). The cumulative exposure to whale watching can have long-term consequences for whales. Law enforcement and measures to raise awareness and compliance to current regulations are urgently needed. Suggestions to improve the current regulation were provided. The present work presents the first abundance estimates for the study area, refines the available information on baleen whales core areas, provides support to the establishment of an adequate zoning plan within the SSLMP and stresses the relevance of the SLEMPA. In addition it provides an in depth overview of the marine traffic issue and provides valuable information to support management of this complex socio-ecological system. / Thesis written in co-mentorship with Robert Michaud.

No description available.