L’objectif de ce travail porte sur l’étude et la réalisation de résonateurs optiques à état liquide en microfluidique digitale. Les gouttes sphériques constituent des résonateurs à mode de galerie, dans lesquels la lumière peut être piégée par réflexion totale interne. A l’échelle microscopique, elles exhibent des propriétés optiques remarquables. Leurs facteurs de qualité très élevés en font notamment des objets propices à l’étude de phénomènes optiques non linéaires, tel l’effet laser, et leur confèrent un potentiel certain en spectroscopie. Par ailleurs, la microfluidique digitale, qui a trait aux systèmes multiphasiques dans des microcanaux artificiels, offre une grande liberté de manipulation des microgouttes : génération au kHz, transport, encapsulation, fusion, division, stockage, triage… Aussi, pour les laboratoires-sur-puce, le développement de ces microgouttes en cavités résonantes constitue une opportunité d’intégrer des outils d’analyse optique capables de sonder des échantillons allant du picolitre au nanolitre.Après un exposé des propriétés optiques des résonateurs à modes de galerie, ce mémoire rapporte les travaux réalisés. Une présentation des méthodes de microfabrication et du montage expérimental précède l’étude de la génération de cavités optiques liquides en dynamique. Ces cavités résonantes sont ensuite appliquées aux sources lasers microfluidiques. En particulier, un effet laser a été mis en évidence dans des microgouttes sphériques d’éthylène glycol contenant de la rhodamine 6G. Enfin, une ouverture sur des systèmes couplant microgouttes et cavités Fabry-Perot présente d’autres perspectives telles que l’analyse de gouttes passives en intravité laser ou bien la commutation rapide de la longueur d’onde d’émission de lasers microfluidiques monomodes. / The purpose of this work is to study and realize liquid state optical resonators in digital microfluidics. Spherical droplets may behave as whispering gallery mode resonators, in which light is trapped by total internal reflections. At the microscopic scale, they exhibit outstanding optical properties. Their high quality factors make them attractive for studying non-linear optical phenomena, such as lasing, and for spectroscopy. In another field of research, digital microfluidics, that deals with multiphase fluid systems in artificial microchannels, also involves microdroplets. It offers a high degree of freedom in handling microdroplets: kHz generation, transport, encapsulation, fusion, division, stockpiling, sorting… Therefore, in lab-on-chip systems, turning microdroplets into resonant microcavities constitutes an opportunity for integrating optical analysis tools that can probe picoliter to nanoliter samples.After a review of the optical properties of whispering gallery mode resonators, this thesis reports the experimental results. A presentation of the methods of microfabrication and of the experimental bench top precedes the study of the dynamic generation of liquid optical microcavities. Then, these resonant cavities are applied to microfluidic laser sources. In particular, lasing effect has been demonstrated in spherical microdroplets of ethylene glycol and rhodamine 6G. Finally, an opening towards systems that combine microdroplets and Fabry-Perot cavities presents other perspectives such as the analysis of passive droplets in laser intacavity or the capability of fast switching the output wavelength of single mode microfluidic dye lasers.

Recent advances in molecular biology and nanotechnology have enabled scientists to study biological systems at molecular and atomic scales. This level of sophistication demands for new technologies to emerge for providing the necessary sensing tools and equipment. Recent studies have shown that terahertz technology can provide revolutionary sensing techniques for organic and non-organic materials with unprecedented accuracy and sensitivity. This is due to the fact that most of the macromolecules have vibrational and/or rotational resonance signatures in terahertz range. To further increase the sensitivity, terahertz radiation is generated and interacted with the bio-sample on a miniaturized test site or the so-called biochip. From the view point of generation and manipulation of terahertz radiation, the biochip is designed based on the same rules as in high frequency electronic chips or integrated circuits (IC). By increasing the frequency toward terahertz range, the conventional IC design methodologies and analysis tools fail to perform accurately. Therefore, development of new design methodologies and analysis tools is of paramount importance for future terahertz integrated circuits (TIC) in general and terahertz biochips in particular. In this thesis, several advancements are made in design methodology, analysis tool and architecture of terahertz and millimeter-wave integrated circuits when used as a biochip. A global and geometry independent approach for design and analysis of the travelling-wave terahertz photomixer sources, as the core component in a TIC, is discussed in details. Three solvers based on photonic, semiconductor and electromagnetic theories are developed and combined as a unified analysis tool. Using the developed terahertz photomixer source, a resonance-based biochip structure is proposed, and its operation principle, based on resonance perturbation method, is explained. A planar metallic resonator acting as a sample holder and transducer is designed, and its performance in terms of sensitivity and selectivity is studied through simulations. The concept of surface impedance for electromagnetic modeling of DNA self-assembled monolayer on a metal surface is proposed, and its effectiveness is discussed based on the available data in the literature. To overcome the loss challenge, Whispering Gallery Mode (WGM) dielectric resonators with high Q factor are studied as an alternative for metallic resonator. The metallic loss becomes very high at terahertz frequencies, and as a result of that planar metallic resonators do not exhibit high Q factor. Reduced Q factor results in a low sensitivity for any sensor using such resonators. Theoretical models for axially and radially layered dielectric resonators acting on WGM are presented, and the analytical results are compared with the measured data. Excitation of WGM through dielectric waveguide is proposed, and the critical coupling condition is explained through analytical formulation. The possibility of selecting one resonance among many for sensing application is also studied both theoretically and experimentally. A high sensitivity sensor based on WGM resonance in mm-wave and terahertz is proposed, and its sensitivity is studied in details. The performance of the proposed sensor is tested for sensing drug tablets and also liquid droplets through various measurements in mm-wave range. The comprehensive sensitivity analysis shows the ability of the proposed sensor to detect small changes in the order of 10−4 in the sample dielectric constant. The results of various experiments carried out on drug tablets are reported to demonstrate the potential multifunctional capabilities of the sensor in moisture sensing, counterfeit drug detection, and contamination screening. The measurement and simulation results obtained in mm-wave hold promise for WGM to be used for sensing biological solutions in terahertz range with very high sensitivity.

Recent advances in molecular biology and nanotechnology have enabled scientists to study biological systems at molecular and atomic scales. This level of sophistication demands for new technologies to emerge for providing the necessary sensing tools and equipment. Recent studies have shown that terahertz technology can provide revolutionary sensing techniques for organic and non-organic materials with unprecedented accuracy and sensitivity. This is due to the fact that most of the macromolecules have vibrational and/or rotational resonance signatures in terahertz range. To further increase the sensitivity, terahertz radiation is generated and interacted with the bio-sample on a miniaturized test site or the so-called biochip. From the view point of generation and manipulation of terahertz radiation, the biochip is designed based on the same rules as in high frequency electronic chips or integrated circuits (IC). By increasing the frequency toward terahertz range, the conventional IC design methodologies and analysis tools fail to perform accurately. Therefore, development of new design methodologies and analysis tools is of paramount importance for future terahertz integrated circuits (TIC) in general and terahertz biochips in particular. In this thesis, several advancements are made in design methodology, analysis tool and architecture of terahertz and millimeter-wave integrated circuits when used as a biochip. A global and geometry independent approach for design and analysis of the travelling-wave terahertz photomixer sources, as the core component in a TIC, is discussed in details. Three solvers based on photonic, semiconductor and electromagnetic theories are developed and combined as a unified analysis tool. Using the developed terahertz photomixer source, a resonance-based biochip structure is proposed, and its operation principle, based on resonance perturbation method, is explained. A planar metallic resonator acting as a sample holder and transducer is designed, and its performance in terms of sensitivity and selectivity is studied through simulations. The concept of surface impedance for electromagnetic modeling of DNA self-assembled monolayer on a metal surface is proposed, and its effectiveness is discussed based on the available data in the literature. To overcome the loss challenge, Whispering Gallery Mode (WGM) dielectric resonators with high Q factor are studied as an alternative for metallic resonator. The metallic loss becomes very high at terahertz frequencies, and as a result of that planar metallic resonators do not exhibit high Q factor. Reduced Q factor results in a low sensitivity for any sensor using such resonators. Theoretical models for axially and radially layered dielectric resonators acting on WGM are presented, and the analytical results are compared with the measured data. Excitation of WGM through dielectric waveguide is proposed, and the critical coupling condition is explained through analytical formulation. The possibility of selecting one resonance among many for sensing application is also studied both theoretically and experimentally. A high sensitivity sensor based on WGM resonance in mm-wave and terahertz is proposed, and its sensitivity is studied in details. The performance of the proposed sensor is tested for sensing drug tablets and also liquid droplets through various measurements in mm-wave range. The comprehensive sensitivity analysis shows the ability of the proposed sensor to detect small changes in the order of 10−4 in the sample dielectric constant. The results of various experiments carried out on drug tablets are reported to demonstrate the potential multifunctional capabilities of the sensor in moisture sensing, counterfeit drug detection, and contamination screening. The measurement and simulation results obtained in mm-wave hold promise for WGM to be used for sensing biological solutions in terahertz range with very high sensitivity.

Optoplasmonic microtube cavities, the combination of dielectric microcavities and noble metal layers, allow for the interactions between photonic modes and surface plasmons, leading to several novel phenomena and promising applications. In this thesis, the hybrid modes with different plasmon-types of evanescent field in the optoplasmonic microtube cavities are discussed. The basic physical mechanism for the generation of plasmon-type field is comprehensively investigated based on an effective potential approach. In particular, when the cavity wall becomes ultra-thin, the plasmon-type field can be greatly enhanced, and the hybrid modes are identified as strong photon-plasmon hybrid modes which are experimentally demonstrated in the metal-coated rolled-up microtube cavities. By designing a metal nanocap onto microtube cavities, angle-dependent tuning of hybrid photon-plasmon modes are realized, in which TE and TM polarized modes exhibit inverse tuning trends due to the polarization match/mismatch. And a novel sensing scheme is proposed relying on the intensity ratio change of TE and TM modes instead of conventionally used mode shift. In addition, localized surface plasmon resonances coupled to resonant light is explored by designing a vertical metal nanogap on microtube cavities. Selective coupling of high-order axial modes is demonstrated depending on spatial-location of the metal nanogap. A modified quasi-potential well model based on perturbation theory is developed to explain the selective coupling mechanism. These researches systematically explore the design of optoplasmonic microtube cavities and the mechanism of photon-plasmon coupling therein, which provide a novel platform for the study of both fundamental and applied physics such as the enhanced light-matter interactions and label-free sensing.

Le confinement électrique et optique par oxydation des couches minces d'AlGaAs est une étape essentielle dans la réalisation des composants photoniques actifs et passifs dans la filière de matériaux GaAs. La recherche de performances ultimes sur ces composants nécessite une meilleure maîtrise du procédé d'oxydation ainsi qu'une meilleure connaissance des propriétés optiques de l'oxyde d'aluminium (AlOx). Dans cette perspective, j'ai d'abord réalisé une étude expérimentale de la vitesse d'oxydation des couches d'AlGaAs en fonction de la température du substrat, de la composition en gallium des couches étudiées, de la pression atmosphérique et de la géométrie des mesas considérés. Puis, j'ai établi un modèle anisotrope permettant une meilleure résolution spatiale et temporelle de la forme du front d'oxydation de l'AlAs. Enfin, j'ai exploité ce procédé pour réaliser des composants d'optique guidée notamment des micro-résonateurs puis réalisé des guides optiques à fente et caractérisé leurs performances optiques. / Optical and electrical confinement using Al(Ga)As layer oxidation is a key milestone in the fabrication of active and passive GaAs-based photonic components. To optimize those devices, through the control of the optical and electrical confinements, a better modelling of oxidation process and a better understanding of optical properties of aluminum oxide (AlOx) is required. One part of this work is focusing on a throughout experimental study of AlGaAs oxidation kinetics, where I studied different important parameters such as wafer temperature, gallium composition, atmospheric pressure and mesa geometry. Then, I developed a new predictive model taking into account the process anisotropy, thus allowing a better temporal and spatial of AlAs oxidation front evolution. Finally, I could exploit this technological process to realize whispering gallery mode microdisks as well as slot optical waveguides, and I have characterized this latter photonic devices.

La présente thèse est consacrée à l’étude des peignes optiques de Kerr dans les résonateurs àmodes de galerie, au sein desquels la lumière peut être excitée par pompage externe. L’effet Kerrexistant dans ces résonateurs engendre des modes latéraux équidistants (dans le domaine spectral)de part et d’autre du mode excité, c’est à dire un peigne de fréquence. Cette thèse est diviséeen trois chapitres. Le premier est dédié à l’introduction de la génération de ces peignes et leurapplications. Le deuxième chapitre présente l’analyse de l’équation de Lugiato-Lefever, décrivantde manière analytique le système, et conduit à la construction de deux diagrammes de bifurcationpour les dispersions normale et anomale. Ils sont tracés en fonction des deux seuls paramètresexpérimentalement contrôlables une fois le résonateur fabriqué : la puissance du laser et sondécalage de fréquence. Ces diagrammes indiquent les plages de paramètres pour lesquels une,deux, ou trois solutions existent ainsi que leur stabilité. Les simulations numériques renseignentle type exact de solution associée à chaque aire (notamment les solitons brillants et sombres, lesbreathers, les peignes optiques de Kerr de premier et deuxième ordre, et un régime chaotique) ; cesdiagrammes indiquent donc les paramètres du laser à choisir afin de générer la solution souhaitée.Le troisième chapitre est dédié aux peignes de Kerr optique secondaires, lignes additionnelles dansle domaine spectral générées entre les lignes du peigne principal. Ils apparaissent en dispersionanormale, lorsque la quantité de photon pompe excède un seuil dit de second ordre, qui a étédéterminé numériquement. / This thesis is dedicated to the study of the Kerr optical frequency combs in whispering gallery moderesonators, where the light can be excited by the extern pump. Due to the Kerr effect existing in theseresonators, the quasi-equidistant lines in the spectral domain are generated around the excited mode,that is the frequency comb. This thesis is devided in three chapters. The first one is dedicated to theintroduction of the Kerr comb generation and their applications.The second one presents the analysisof the Lugiato-Lefever equation used for the analytical study of the system, leading to the constructionof two bifurcation diagrams for the normal and anomalous dispersions. They are plotted for twoparameters, which can be controlled during experiments once the resonator has been fabricated,which are the pump power of the laser and its frequency detuning. These diagrams show the areas ofthe parameters for which one, two, or three solutions exist and their stability. The additional numericalsimulations show the exact type of the solution in each area (such as the bright and dark solitons,the breathers, the primary and secondary Kerr combs and chaotical regimes), finally these diagramsshow the parameters of the laser needed to be choosen for the generation of the desired solution.The third chapter is dedicated to the secondary Kerr combs, which are the additional lines generatedbetween the lines of the primary comb. They appear in the anomalous dispersion regime, when thequantity of the pump photons crosses the second-order threshold, which has been found numerically.

Micro-technology relies on a highly parallel fabrication of 2D electronic and/or microelectromechanical devices, where in most cases silicon wafers are used as substrates. In contrast 3D fabrication shows unique advantages, such as footprint reduction or the possibility to obtain additional functionalities. For example, in the case of a sensor, knowledge of the acceleration in all possible directions, the surrounding electric or magnetic field among other quantities can help to determine the exact position of an object in 3D space. To do that it is crucial to retrieve all components of a vector field, which requires at least one out of plane component. In other fields like integrated optics three dimensional structures can enhance the coupling efficiency with free space interactions. As such 3D micro-structures will be crucial for upcoming products and devices. A highly parallel fabrication is required to enable mass-adaption, self-assembly is an emerging technology that could deliver this purpose. Examples of 3D structures created by self-assembly include polyhedrons like cubes, pyramids or micro tubular structures such as tubes or spirals. Following a self assembly scheme, 3D devices would be created through the fabrication of standard 2D structures that are reshaped through a self-assembly step into a 3D object. In this thesis a novel dry release protocol was developed to roll-up strained nanomembranes from a silicon sacrificial layer employing dry fluorine chemistry. This way a wet release is totally circumvented thus preventing damage of the created structures due to turbulent flow or capillary forces. Additionally the developed process enabled the use of standard CMOS deposition and processing tools, leading to a high increase in yield and quality, with yields exceeding 99% for microtubes. Building on the developed technology various devices where fabricated, for example rolled-up micro capacitors at a wafer scale with an increased yield and a low spread of electrical characteristics. For the E12 industrial standard more than 90% of devices behaved within the required performance characteristics. Furthermore the yield and Q-factor of roll-up whispering gallery mode resonators was strongly improved, making it possible to self assemble 3D coupled photonic molecules, which showed a mode splitting exceeding the FSR, as well as hybrid supermodes at points of energy degeneracy.:Contents Bibliographic Record i List of Abbreviations vii List of Chemical Substances ix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Microelectromechanical Systems 1 1.2 Strain Engineering 2 1.3 Rolled - Up Nanotechnology 3 1.4 Objective and Structure of the Thesis 5 2 Materials and Methods 9 2.1 Fabrication Techniques 9 2.1.1 Substrates 9 2.1.2 Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition 9 2.1.3 Dry Etching12 2.1.4 Deep Reactive Ion Etching 18 2.1.5 Atomic Layer Deposition 19 2.1.6 Lithography 20 2.2 Characterization Techniques 22 2.2.1 Strain Measurement 22 2.2.2 Ellipsometry 23 3 Dry Roll-Up of Strained Nanomembranes 25 3.1 Rolled - Up Nanotechnology 25 3.2 Fabrication 26 3.2.1 Release 29 3.3 Conclusions 33 4 Rolled-UpMicro Capacitors 35 4.1 Micro Capacitors 35 4.2 Fabrication 38 4.3 Characterization 39 4.4 Conclusion 41 5 Optical Micro-Cavities 43 5.1 Optical Micro Cavities 43 5.2 Theorectical Background 45 5.2.1 Quality - factor 49 5.2.2 FDTD 52 6 Optical Microtube Resonators 55 6.1 Optical Whispering Gallery Mode Microtube Resonators 55 6.2 Fabrication 57 6.3 Active Characterization 60 6.4 Conclusions 64 7 Photonic Molecules 65 7.1 Coupled Photonic Systems 65 7.2 Fabrication 68 7.3 Device Characterization 71 7.4 Multimode Waveguides 84 7.5 Conclusions 85 8 Conclusions and Outlook 87 8.1 Conclusions 87 8.2 Outlook 88 Bibliography 91 List of Figures 109 List of Tables 117 A Equipment 119 Cover Pages 121 Selbstständigkeitserklärung 123 Acknowledgements 125 List of Publications 127 List of Presentations 129 Curriculum Vitae 131