The purpose of this dissertation is to defend William James's will to believe doctrine from the main lines of criticism which have been leveled against it throughout the last century. Principal among such criticisms are accusations that James fideistically advocated an intrusion of the subject into doxastic practice which opens the door to wishful thinking, and that he confused belief and hypothesis-adoption. My defense of James against such charges will be based upon analyses of two important but neglected components of his position--the "liveness" of certain options and propositions, and the "strenuous mood''-and upon a contextualization of the role assigned by James to "passional nature" within the terms of reference of his work on immediate experience. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Hating is an activity which can be useful to human endeavors. This study is a Pragmatic inquiry, and, as such, attempts to answer the question: What difference can our hating make to our projects, goals, and aspirations? We treat hate as an emotion, bracketed from any moral or ethical concerns, which might cloud a philosophical investigation. At the very least, the difficulty in choosing only one ethical or moral perspective from which to examine the usefulness of hate is inconsistent with Pragmatism's pluralism. Through exploring the writings of Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, we find hate to be a strong, problematic emotion. Central to Nietzsche's philosophical corpus, hate is something felt by weak people who seek to discharge this emotion, in acts of revenge, onto stronger people - but who cannot because of their very weakness. The impotence to discharge this hate turns into ressentiment, a general hate for the world at large, on the order of rank which places the hater at the bottom and the hated at the top. Nietzsche claims that weak people of ressentiment joined together in an effort to overturn the natural order, and they created a new order where meekness and humility are virtues and where pride and strength are "wrong." This new order of values is the Christian Church, according to Nietzsche. There are solutions to the problem of hating that we find in Nietzsche's writings. The first is to hate the right enemies, that is, to hate stronger enemies. When we struggle against people who are stronger than we are, one of two outcomes are possible. We are either destroyed, or made stronger. Ergo, one way in which hate might be useful for Nietzsche is for us to hate stronger people and become stronger as a result of this struggle. This is understood in the context of the will to power, which Nietzsche claims is all life itself. The will to power wills one thing: power. For Nietzsche, an increased feeling of power brings with it an increased feeling of life. One might posit the equation: more power = more life. Nietzsche's other solution is also rooted in the will to power and is something of which we find the seeds in Concord, in the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Nietzsche writes about something he calls sublimation. Sublimation begins when we repress an emotion and prevent its discharge. For Nietzsche, emotions exhibit a type of energy, which is expended when the emotion is discharged. He advocates that we repress some emotions in order to retain the energy and then use our rational faculties to discharge them in such a way that we thereby increase our power. This type of self-control and employment of the emotions would amount to actually using our hate to increase our power and, as such, to increase our feeling of life. William James, another thinker who was influenced by Emerson, presents us with something similar in his writings on energy and in "The Moral Equivalent of War." He claims that there are energies that enable us to act into which we can tap by means of some stimulus or act of the will - much the way that marathoners experience a second wind when they apprehend that they might overtake the lead runner. James works with the example of war, wherein a nation is able to achieve certain "manly virtues," such as strength, courage, and solidarity. He seeks some way for us to obtain the benefits of war without military conflict. In short, James claims that we can harness the energy from some stimulus and redirect this energy onto some object or toward some goal which we freely choose. To be sure, this is different from Nietzsche's sublimation precisely because of James' belief in free will. James' redirection of energies enables us not only to choose our goals - which for Nietzsche are always power - but also to choose the manner in which we will discharge this energy. There are instances wherein our hating is not something we would want to sublimate or redirect. When we hate the "correct" object, we should hate. The correct object of our hate is, in short, whatever stands in the way of our projects and goals. We examine Batman Begins and V for Vendetta, both recent films wherein the lead characters hate those who destroy their societies. Batman hates the criminals who infect Gotham City, but he lacks the conviction to do what is necessary and destroy them, since he is fettered by his own moral code, which he values more highly than the destruction of his enemies who stand in the way of the peaceful society for which he longs. V, on the other hand, has no such moral scruples. He successfully destroys his enemies (the corrupt state itself) by the end of his story, illustrating along the way Nietzsche's sublimation in his decades-long revenge and redemption.

Este trabalho analisa as proposições educacionais e o conceito de experiência religiosa elaborados por William James (1842-1910), um dos fundadores da corrente filosófica denominada Pragmatismo e responsável por inaugurar o campo da ciência psicológica nos Estados Unidos da América. Considerando que as pesquisas educacionais brasileiras pouco têm se dedicado às ideias jamesianas, o trabalho busca explicitar as teses de James sobre educação por intermédio da análise de suas concepções acerca da religiosidade. São examinados os conteúdos de Talks to teachers on psychology, obra de 1899 em que o autor discute a prática docente e a formação de estudantes, e também os conteúdos de As variedades da experiência religiosa, livro de 1902 em que o autor analisa o fenômeno da religiosidade. O propósito dessas análises é explicitar a noção jamesiana de ensino como arte por intermédio de suas ideias acerca da experiência religiosa. Ao realizar essa meta, este trabalho visa oferecer contribuições para discutir as tendências dominantes da educação na atualidade, caracterizadas como voltadas à mercantilização do ensino. / This work analyzes the educational propositions and the concept of religious experience elaborated by William James (1842-1910), one of the founders of the philosophical current denominated Pragmatism and responsible for inaugurating the field of psychological science in the United States of America. Considering that the Brazilian educational researches are little dedicated to the ideas of James, the work seeks to make explicit the theses of James on education through the analysis of his conceptions about religiosity. It examines the contents of Talks to teachers on psychology, 1899, in which the author discusses the teaching practice and the formation of students, as well as the contents of The varieties of religious experience, 1902, book in which the author analyzes the phenomenon of Religiosity. The purpose of these analyzes is to make explicit the Jameson notion of teaching as art through his ideas about religious experience. In accomplishing this goal, the work aims to offer contributions to discuss the dominant tendencies of education in the present time, characterized as directed to the commodification of education.

William James desenvolveu no conjunto de seus trabalhos um referencial filosófico útil para estudos da consciência e da religião que permanece válido e aplicável na prática contemporânea de disciplinas como a psicologia e a antropologia. O presente trabalho é uma exploração inicial de possibilidades filosóficas abertas por James nesses campos: a religiosidade, a espiritualidade, e a busca de sentido e transcendência em um mundo desencantado. A tese foi dividida em duas partes. Na Parte I, apresentei o contexto da relação contemporânea entre psicologia e espiritualidade. Nessa parte, discuti o significado de ambas as palavras, a relação que historicamente existe entre elas, e o papel de James na constituição histórica dessa relação. Além de ter tido um papel histórico na formação de um campo de estudos no qual esses dois assuntos se interconectam, James também forneceu uma abordagem filosófica para investigá-los. Essa abordagem foi chamada por ele de empirismo radical. Na Parte II, desenvolvi uma reflexão em torno do empirismo radical, trabalhando alguns conceitos que podem ser úteis para uma prática de investigação radicalmente empirista. / William James developed in his work a useful philosophical framework for studies on consciousness and religion which remains valid and applicable in the contemporary practice of disciplines such as psychology and anthropology. The present work is an initial exploration of philosophical possibilities opened up by James in these fields: religiosity, spirituality, and the search for meaning and transcendence in a disenchanted world. The thesis was divided into two parts. In Part I was presented the context of the contemporary relationship between psychology and spirituality. In this part, I discussed the meaning of both words, the relationship that historically exists between them and Jamess role in the historical constitution of that relationship. Besides having a historical role in the formation of a field of studies in which these two topics interconnect, James provided also a philosophical approach to investigate them. He called this approach radical empiricism. In Part II, I developed a reflection on radical empiricism, working out some concepts which may be useful for a radically empiricist inquiry.

Este trabalho analisa as proposições educacionais e o conceito de experiência religiosa elaborados por William James (1842-1910), um dos fundadores da corrente filosófica denominada Pragmatismo e responsável por inaugurar o campo da ciência psicológica nos Estados Unidos da América. Considerando que as pesquisas educacionais brasileiras pouco têm se dedicado às ideias jamesianas, o trabalho busca explicitar as teses de James sobre educação por intermédio da análise de suas concepções acerca da religiosidade. São examinados os conteúdos de Talks to teachers on psychology, obra de 1899 em que o autor discute a prática docente e a formação de estudantes, e também os conteúdos de As variedades da experiência religiosa, livro de 1902 em que o autor analisa o fenômeno da religiosidade. O propósito dessas análises é explicitar a noção jamesiana de ensino como arte por intermédio de suas ideias acerca da experiência religiosa. Ao realizar essa meta, este trabalho visa oferecer contribuições para discutir as tendências dominantes da educação na atualidade, caracterizadas como voltadas à mercantilização do ensino. / This work analyzes the educational propositions and the concept of religious experience elaborated by William James (1842-1910), one of the founders of the philosophical current denominated Pragmatism and responsible for inaugurating the field of psychological science in the United States of America. Considering that the Brazilian educational researches are little dedicated to the ideas of James, the work seeks to make explicit the theses of James on education through the analysis of his conceptions about religiosity. It examines the contents of Talks to teachers on psychology, 1899, in which the author discusses the teaching practice and the formation of students, as well as the contents of The varieties of religious experience, 1902, book in which the author analyzes the phenomenon of Religiosity. The purpose of these analyzes is to make explicit the Jameson notion of teaching as art through his ideas about religious experience. In accomplishing this goal, the work aims to offer contributions to discuss the dominant tendencies of education in the present time, characterized as directed to the commodification of education.

Neste estudo, apresentamos uma visão sobre a relação entre psicologia e filosofia na obra de William James e uma discussão de alguns elementos importantes de sua visão de mundo. Segundo essa visão, enquanto a psicologia funciona como uma preparação para a filosofia, esta última serve para investigar e avaliar os fundamentos da primeira. Assim, psicologia e filosofia se apoiam mutuamente na tarefa de solucionar problemas fundamentais da existência humana. Além da investigação dessa relação, o estudo parte do reconhecimento de uma tendência distintamente soteriológica no pensamento de James, expressa em sua afirmação de que a religião é a função mais importante da humanidade. Essa tendência soteriológica guia seu trabalho nos campos da psicologia e da filosofia em torno dos problemas da natureza humana e da condição humana, e faz com que ele se esforce rumo a uma reconciliação entre a ciência e a religião. Argumentamos que ele tem sucesso em alcançar essa reconciliação através de sua análise das assunções metafísicas da ciência e da formulação de uma teoria da consciência que fornece um terreno comum para a ciência e a religião. Assim ele produz uma visão filosófica que é valiosa para a filosofia e para a psicologia ainda hoje. / In this study, we present a view on the relationship between psychology and philosophy in the work of William James and a discussion of some important elements of his worldview. According to this view, while psychology functions as a preparation for philosophy, the latter serves to investigate and evaluate the foundations of the former. Thus psychology and philosophy mutually support each other in the task of solving fundamental problems of human existence. In addition to the investigation of this relationship, the study starts from the recognition of a distinctly soteriological tendency in Jamess thought, expressed in his affirmation that religion is mankinds most important function. This soteriological tendency guides his work in the fields of psychology and philosophy around the problems of human nature and the human condition, and makes him strive toward a reconciliation between science and religion. We argue that he has success in attaining this reconciliation through his analysis of the metaphysical assumptions of science and the formulation of a theory of consciousness that supplies a common ground for both science and religion. Thus he produces a philosophical view that is valuable to philosophy and psychology even today.

Zugl.: Tübingen, Univ., Habil.-Schr., 2009

The term “pragmatism” has been used and abused by doctrines that are even contradictory among them. For the founder of Pragmatism as a philosophicaltradition, Charles Peirce, this situation might seem a sad misunderstanding, and that is why he came up with the term “pragmaticism” in order to distinguish his own particular version of Pragmatism. However, Peirce himself did not leave a systematic treaty that explained what kind of specific conditions distinguish his pragmatism from other versions. In this essay I introduce some criteria that I deem fundamental to disambiguate the meaning of Pragmatism: (1) the use of the logical principle known as the ‘pragmatic maxim’, upon which the corner stone of the tradition should rest; (2) the need to adopt Scholastic Realism and reject Nominalism; and (3), the operationalist character (as opposed to the inferential character) of Peirce’s pragmatism. In addition, I offer some views avowing that in spite of the differences and distinctions that these criteria establish, there is a core of convergence between the different kinds of pragmatisms present in the philosophical tradition. / Distintas doctrinas, incluso contrapuestas entre sí, presumen de ser una forma de “pragmatismo”. Para el fundador del Pragmatismo en tanto tradición filosófica, Charles Peirce, esta situación puede resultar en una lamentable confusión y, por tanto, acuñó el término de ‘pragmaticismo’ para distinguir su particular versión.Sin embargo, Peirce mismo no escribió un texto sistemático en el que explicara qué criterios específicos distinguen su pragmatismo de cualquier otro. En este texto presento algunos de estos criterios que me parecen fundamentales: (1) el uso de una máxima pragmática sobre la cual ha de descansar el principio lógico que fundamenta la tradición, (2) La necesidad de adoptar el realismo escolástico y rechazar el nominalismo; y (3) El caracter operacionalista, opuesto al inferencialista, del pragmatismo de Peirce. Además, presento algunas opiniones que hacen pensar que a pesar de las distinciones que estos criterios establecen hay un núcleo de convergencia entre los distintos tipos de pragmatismos presentes en la tradición filosófica.

William James desenvolveu no conjunto de seus trabalhos um referencial filosófico útil para estudos da consciência e da religião que permanece válido e aplicável na prática contemporânea de disciplinas como a psicologia e a antropologia. O presente trabalho é uma exploração inicial de possibilidades filosóficas abertas por James nesses campos: a religiosidade, a espiritualidade, e a busca de sentido e transcendência em um mundo desencantado. A tese foi dividida em duas partes. Na Parte I, apresentei o contexto da relação contemporânea entre psicologia e espiritualidade. Nessa parte, discuti o significado de ambas as palavras, a relação que historicamente existe entre elas, e o papel de James na constituição histórica dessa relação. Além de ter tido um papel histórico na formação de um campo de estudos no qual esses dois assuntos se interconectam, James também forneceu uma abordagem filosófica para investigá-los. Essa abordagem foi chamada por ele de empirismo radical. Na Parte II, desenvolvi uma reflexão em torno do empirismo radical, trabalhando alguns conceitos que podem ser úteis para uma prática de investigação radicalmente empirista. / William James developed in his work a useful philosophical framework for studies on consciousness and religion which remains valid and applicable in the contemporary practice of disciplines such as psychology and anthropology. The present work is an initial exploration of philosophical possibilities opened up by James in these fields: religiosity, spirituality, and the search for meaning and transcendence in a disenchanted world. The thesis was divided into two parts. In Part I was presented the context of the contemporary relationship between psychology and spirituality. In this part, I discussed the meaning of both words, the relationship that historically exists between them and Jamess role in the historical constitution of that relationship. Besides having a historical role in the formation of a field of studies in which these two topics interconnect, James provided also a philosophical approach to investigate them. He called this approach radical empiricism. In Part II, I developed a reflection on radical empiricism, working out some concepts which may be useful for a radically empiricist inquiry.

Neste estudo, apresentamos uma visão sobre a relação entre psicologia e filosofia na obra de William James e uma discussão de alguns elementos importantes de sua visão de mundo. Segundo essa visão, enquanto a psicologia funciona como uma preparação para a filosofia, esta última serve para investigar e avaliar os fundamentos da primeira. Assim, psicologia e filosofia se apoiam mutuamente na tarefa de solucionar problemas fundamentais da existência humana. Além da investigação dessa relação, o estudo parte do reconhecimento de uma tendência distintamente soteriológica no pensamento de James, expressa em sua afirmação de que a religião é a função mais importante da humanidade. Essa tendência soteriológica guia seu trabalho nos campos da psicologia e da filosofia em torno dos problemas da natureza humana e da condição humana, e faz com que ele se esforce rumo a uma reconciliação entre a ciência e a religião. Argumentamos que ele tem sucesso em alcançar essa reconciliação através de sua análise das assunções metafísicas da ciência e da formulação de uma teoria da consciência que fornece um terreno comum para a ciência e a religião. Assim ele produz uma visão filosófica que é valiosa para a filosofia e para a psicologia ainda hoje. / In this study, we present a view on the relationship between psychology and philosophy in the work of William James and a discussion of some important elements of his worldview. According to this view, while psychology functions as a preparation for philosophy, the latter serves to investigate and evaluate the foundations of the former. Thus psychology and philosophy mutually support each other in the task of solving fundamental problems of human existence. In addition to the investigation of this relationship, the study starts from the recognition of a distinctly soteriological tendency in Jamess thought, expressed in his affirmation that religion is mankinds most important function. This soteriological tendency guides his work in the fields of psychology and philosophy around the problems of human nature and the human condition, and makes him strive toward a reconciliation between science and religion. We argue that he has success in attaining this reconciliation through his analysis of the metaphysical assumptions of science and the formulation of a theory of consciousness that supplies a common ground for both science and religion. Thus he produces a philosophical view that is valuable to philosophy and psychology even today.