L’angiogenèse physiologique est un processus clé du développement embryonnaire et chez l’adulte. Une anomalie de la formation des vaisseaux sanguins est à l’origine de nombreuses pathologies. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de l’angiogenèse est un pré-requis essentiel à la mise au point de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques ayant pour objectif d’inhiber ou stimuler cette angiogenèse pour mieux traiter l’ensemble de ces pathologies. Au cours de ces dernières années, les voies de signalisation Wnt/Fzd sont apparues comme jouant un rôle fondamental dans le développement vasculaire. Au début de cette thèse, un premier projet nous a permis de montrer le rôle important de Fzd7 dans le contrôle de la perméabilité vasculaire, in vitro et in vivo, via la voie canonique et la régulation des complexes jonctionnels dépendantes de la VE-cadhérine. La deuxième partie de ce travail s’est focalisé sur le rôle de Fzd7 dans la formation des vaisseaux. Nous avons mis en évidence que Fzd7 contrôle la vascularisation post-natale de la rétine chez la souris. La voie de signalisation Fzd7/DVL/β-caténine régule le sprouting et la prolifération des cellules endothéliale (CE) via l’activation de la voie Notch, tandis que la voie de signalisation de Fzd7 contrôle la migration des CE via la régulation de MMP2/9 indépendamment de la voie Notch. Enfin, la troisième partie de cette thèse a eu pour objectif d’étudier l’implication de Fzd7 sur l’angiogenèse pathologique. Nos résultats préliminaires indiquent que Fzd7 participe aux phases de vaso-oblitération et de néovascularisation dans un modèle de rétinopathie induite par l’oxygène chez la souris, suggérant que Fzd7 pourrait être une nouvelle cible dans le traitement des rétinopathies. / Physiological angiogenesis is a key process in embryonic development but also in adult. Abnormal formation of blood vessels is the cause of many diseases. A better understanding of the mechanisms of angiogenesis is an essential prerequisite for the development of new therapeutic strategies aimed to inhibit or stimulate angiogenesis to better address these pathologies. In recent years, the Wnt/Fzd signaling pathways appeared to play a key role in vascular development. At the beginning of this study, a first project allowed us to show the important role of Fzd7 in controlling vascular permeability in vitro and in vivo, through the canonical pathway and the regulation of VE-cadherin junctional complexes. The second and main part of this work focused on the role of Fzd7 in the formation of blood vessels. We have demonstrated that Fzd7 controls postnatal vascularization of mice retina. The signaling pathway Fzd7/DVL/β-catenin regulates the sprouting and proliferation of endothelial cells (EC) through activation of Notch signaling, but also controls EC migration through MMP2/9 but independently of the Notch pathway. Finally, the third part of this work aimed to study the involvement of Fzd7 on pathological angiogenesis. Our preliminary data indicate that Fzd7 regulates vaso-obliteration and neovascularization in a mice model of oxygen-induced retinopathy suggesting that Fzd7 could be a new target for the treatment of retinopathy.

Background: The Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway is activated in arrhythmogenic heart diseases such as myocardial infarction and heart failure, but it is unclear if the pathway regulates cardiac ion channels and thus may play a role in arrhythmogenesis. Previous PCR array screening from our lab showed that the transcript level of the T-type calcium channel gene Cacna1g was reduced in primary culture of neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs) after activation of Wnt/β-catenin signalling with Wnt3a protein (100 ng/ml) or a small molecule activator of the pathway, CHIR (3 µM) (n=3, p<0.01). In this study, we examined the effects of Wnt/β-catenin signalling on T-type calcium channels (Caᴠ3.1), which play a key role in the pacemaker function of the sinoatrial node (SAN). Results: RT-qPCR and western blot demonstrated dose-dependent reductions in Cacna1g mRNA (n=7, p<0.01) and Cav3.1 protein (n=4, p<0.01) in NRVMs after treatment with CHIR (3 μM). There was also a decrease in Cacna1g mRNA in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) after treatment with CHIR (5 μM) (n=4; p<0.001). Patch-clamp recording demonstrated reduced T-type calcium current (ICa,T) in NRVMs after Wnt3a treatment (3 μg/ml) (n=5, p<0.05). In isolated mouse SAN tissue, perfusion with an ICa,T blocker, ML-218 (30 µM), led to dose-dependent reductions in spontaneous beating rate (n=4, p<0.0001) indicating a critical role of ICa,T in SAN pacemaking. In adult rats, activation of Wnt/β-catenin signalling through the application of CHIR in a poloxamer gel to the SAN region did not alter the in vivo heart rate in electrocardiogram (ECG) (n=8, p=0.12). However, ex vivo culture of SAN tissue from the in vivo experiments revealed a reduction intrinsic beating rate in the CHIR treated group (n=7) compared to the control (DMSO) (n=8) (p<0.05). Summary: Wnt/β-catenin signalling inhibits T-type Ca²⁺ current in cardiomyocytes by, at least partly, reduced Cacna1g mRNA and Cav3.1 protein. Activation of Wnt/β-catenin signalling reduces the intrinsic heart rate likely by inhibition of T-type Ca²⁺ current in SAN pacemaker cells.

Die Wundheilung im Zusammenhang mit der Aktivierung des Wnt-Signalweg und Type 1 / Type 2 Immunity wurde im Maus Modell und in-vitro an verschiedenen Zeitpunkten untersucht. Es hat sich herausgestellt, dass der Wnt-Signalweg während der Spätphase der Wundheilung aktiviert wird, also unter Type 2 Immunity. Diese Arbeit deutet darauf hin, dass die Wundheilung über eine Modellierung des Wnt-Signalweg beschleunigt oder verbessert werden kann, allerdings nur an spezifischen Zeitpunkten.:LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................ 5 INDEX OF FIGURES..................................................................................................7 INDEX OF TABLES.....................................................................................................8 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................9 1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................11 1.1 Cutaneous wound healing...............................................................................11 1.2 Phases of wound healing................................................................................11 1.2.01 Inflammation............................................................................................11 1.2.02 Proliferation..............................................................................................13 1.2.03 Remodeling..............................................................................................16 1.3 Wnt-signaling...................................................................................................17 1.3.01 Wnt-ligands biogenesis and receptors....................................................17 1.3.02 Canonical and non canonical Wnt signaling...........................................20 1.3.03 Canonical Wnt/ß catenin signaling..........................................................20 1.4 Wound healing and canonical Wnt/ß catenin signaling...................................21 2 AIMS OF THE STUDY......................................................................................25 3 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES........................................27 3.1 MATERIALS.....................................................................................................27 3.1.01 Instruments..............................................................................................27 3.1.02 Software..................................................................................................27 3.1.03 Websites..................................................................................................28 3.1.04 Consumables...........................................................................................28 3.1.05 Media and Buffers...................................................................................29 3.1.06 Reagents..................................................................................................29 3.1.07 Stimulation reagents................................................................................30 3.1.08 Anesthesia and analgesia used for the full-thickness skin wound model.......................................................................................................................30 3.1.09 Kits...........................................................................................................30 3.1.10 Quantitative reverse-transcription PCR primers......................................31 3.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES.....................................................................32 3.2.01 Mice.........................................................................................................32 3.2.02 Cell Lines.................................................................................................32 3.2.03 Cell counting with trypan blue stain and hemocytometer method.........32 3.2.04 Preparation of murine H133WT immortalized primary keratinocytes cultures....................................................................................................................33 3.2.05 Preparation of RAW264.7 murine macrophages cultures.......................33 3.2.06 Preparation of primary murine fibroblasts cultures.................................33 3.2.07 Type 1 and type 2 immunity cell stimulation...........................................34 3.2.08 Cell RNA isolation....................................................................................34 3.2.09 Mice wounding........................................................................................35 3.2.10 Whole skin tissue isolation......................................................................36 3.2.11 Epidermal and dermal tissue isolation....................................................36 3.2.12 Tissue RNA isolation...............................................................................36 3.2.13 cDNA synthesis.......................................................................................36 3.2.14 Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qPCR).......................................................37 3.2.15 Statistical analysis...................................................................................37 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS..............................................................................39 4.1 Canonical Wnt/ß-catenin signaling activity in different skin cell populations under type 1 and type 2 immunity cytokines stimulation in vitro............................39 4.2 Canonical Wnt/ß-catenin signaling activity under type 1 and type 2 immunity conditions during wound healing in vivo.................................................................42 4.3 Wnt-ligands expression in different skin cell populations under type 1 and type 2 immunity cytokines stimulation in vitro.........................................................44 4.4 Wnt ligands expression in epidermal and dermal fraction under type 1 and type 2 immunity conditions in vivo..........................................................................51 5 DISCUSSION...................................................................................................53 6 CONCLUSIONS...............................................................................................59 7 PERSPECTIVES...............................................................................................61 8 REFERENCES..................................................................................................63 9 APPENDIX.......................................................................................................71 9.1 Supplementary results.....................................................................................71 9.2 Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit.................................73 9.3 Curriculum Vitae..............................................................................................75 9.4 Acknowledgments...........................................................................................79

Wnt proteins have key roles in patterning of multicellular animals, acting at a distance from their sites of production. However, it is not well understood how these molecules propagate. This question has become even more puzzling by the discovery that Wnts harbour post-translational lipid-modifications, which enhance association with membranes and may therefore limit propagation by simple diffusion in an aqueous environment. The cellular mechanisms involved in Wnt propagation are largely unknown for vertebrate organisms. Here, I discuss my findings on the cellular localization of zebrafish Wnt8, as an example of a vertebrate Wnt. Wnt8 is a key signal for positioning the midbrain-hindbrain brain boundary (MHB) organizer along the anterior-posterior axis of the developing brain in vertebrates. However, it is not clear how this protein propagates from its source, the blastoderm margin, to the target cells, in the prospective neural plate. For this purpose, I have analysed a biologically active, fluorescently tagged Wnt8 in live zebrafish embryos. Wnt8 was present in live tissue in membrane associated punctate structures. In Wnt8 expressing cells these puncta localise to filopodial cellular processes, from which the protein is released to neighbouring cells. This filopodial release requires posttranslational palmitoylation. Although palmitoylation-defective Wnt8 retains auto- and juxtacrine signaling activity, it fails to signal over a long-range. Additionally, this Wnt8 palmitoylation is necessary for regulation of its neural plate target genes. These results suggest that vertebrate Wnt proteins use cell-to-cell contact through filopodia as a shortrange propagation mechanism while released palmitoylated Wnt is required for longrange signaling activity. Furthermore, I show that a Wnt8 receptor, Frizzled9 can negatively influence Wnt8 propagation and signaling range. Finally, I was able to determine the presence of an endogenous Wnt8 gradient in the neurectoderm. I discuss these findings in the context of Wnt8 signaling function in mediating anterior-posterior patterning during early brain development.

The TCF/LEF transcriptional factors regulate the target genes of the Wnt signalling pathway - one of the key signalling mechanisms involved in development of multicellular organisms. The TCF/LEF genes produce a number of various protein isoforms, which consequently leads to a great functional diversity of the TCF/LEF proteins. In this diploma project we focused on the Caenorhabditis elegans gene pop-1, the ortholog of the TCF/LEF genes, whose isoforms have not been studied yet. Using the Northern blot analysis we tried to identify alternative isoforms of the pop-1 mRNA in C. elegans. Using quantitative RT-PCR we also analyzed the pop-1 mRNA levels during seven developmental stages of C. elegans. Further, we also determined the expression profile of two important partners of pop-1, the bar-1 and sys-1 genes, whose protein products function as transcriptional co-activators. Key words: canonical Wnt signaling pathway, TCF/LEF transcription factors, Caenorhabditis elegans, pop-1

For more than 20 years, T-cell specific factor 4 (Tcf4) is the most intensively studied member of the conserved Tcf/Lymphoid enhancer-binding factor (Lef) family of transcription factors. Together with β-catenin coactivator, Tcf4 represents the prominent nuclear effector of canonical Wnt signaling in the intestinal epithelium. Regulation of Wnt-β-catenin signaling in intestinal stem cells is crucial for tissue homeostasis and tumor formation initiation. Up to date, several mouse models were generated to manipulate Tcf4 abundance or activity in vivo and dissect its function. Moreover, mutational screens and expression profiling of human colorectal tumors were carried out to disclose a contribution of TCF4 to tumor progression. However, subsequent studies brought conflicting results in relation to the potential of Tcf4 to activate or repress Wnt target genes and drive or inhibit cell proliferation. Here in this study, we analyze publicly available datasets for global expression of TCF4 and its paralogs in human tissues and colorectal cancer (CRC) samples. Notably, we present newly generated Tcf4flox5 mouse with a conditional Tcf4 allele that can be used to eliminate expression of Tcf4 from two alternative promoters of the gene. Using this mouse strain we documented that Tcf4 loss led to the demise of...

The Wnt signaling pathway represents the principal evolutionarily conserved signaling cascade found in all multicellular organisms. It plays a key role not only in many processes during embryogenesis, but also in maintaining tissue homeostasis and regeneration. By contrast, mutations in genes encoding components of the pathway often result in increased activation of Wnt signaling and underlie onset of many human diseases, particularly cancer. The canonical Wnt signaling pathway is essential for proliferation and maintenance of the pluripotent state of intestinal stem cells and thus for homeostatic renewal of the intestinal epithelium. However, aberrant (hyper)activation of the Wnt signaling pathway is the initial step in development of intestinal neoplasia. Understanding the causes and identifying the consequences of the Wnt signaling hyperactivation is crucial for deciphering mechanisms leading to malignant transformation. Although the canonical Wnt signaling pathway has been the subject of scientific studies for several decades, all regulatory mechanisms and consequences of its hyperactivation have not been completely elucidated yet. During my PhD studies, I focused on understanding function(s) of some components and target genes of this signaling cascade. In this theses, results of my first...

Le développement embryonnaire est un processus hautement contrôlé où différentes voies de signalisation se coordonnent pour la construction d'un organisme. L'une des principales voies de signalisation impliquées dans ce processus est la voie canonique Wnt. La longue quête pour comprendre la cascade de signalisation Wnt/β-catenine a révélé que la réponse transcriptionelle induite par le signal Wnt/β-catenine est dépendante du contexte, ou compétence, cellulaire. Peu de choses sont connues sur les évènements moléculaires qui influencent cette compétence cellulaire. Dans les embryons de X. laevis Wnt/β-catenine est le signal inducteur pour l'Organisateur de Spemann. On ne sait pas ce qui limite l'activité Wnt dans ce territoire et par voie de conséquence la taille de l'Organisateur. Les résultats présentés dans ce manuscrit de thèse montrent que le facteur de transcription Barhl2 affecte le développement de l'organisateur de Spemann. Nous démontrons que Barhl2 inhibe l'activité Wnt via son interaction avec le corépresseur Groucho et le facteur de transcription Tcf, et mobilise l'activité de Hdac1 qui agit sur la structure chromatinienne. En utilisant des expériences in vitro et in vivo sur des cellules en culture et des embryons de Xénope nous démontrons que la régulation de Barhl2 sur les activités Groucho-Tcf est maintenue pendant l'embryogenèse et joue un rôle dans le confinement des progéniteurs neuraux dans le cerveau. Ensemble, nos résultats fournissent un mécanisme nouveau et important agissant sur le contrôle de l'activité transcriptionelle Wnt et la compétence des cellules à répondre à ce signal. / Embryonic development is a highly controlled process where different signaling pathways participate into the elaboration of an organism. One of the main signaling pathways is the Wnt canonical pathway. The long-lasting search to understand Wnt/β-catenin transduction cascade revealed that the net transcriptional read out of Wnt/β-catenin signaling is highly dependent on the cellular context. In X. laevis embryos Wnt/β-catenin signaling is the informative signal for the Spemann Organizer induction. However little is known on what limits Wnt activity in this territory and consequently the size of the Spemann Organizer. The results presented in this manuscript provide evidence that the evolutionarily conserved transcription factor Barhl2 limits the development of the Spemann organizer. In this territory Barhl2 inhibits Wnt activity via its interaction with the co-repressor Groucho and the transcription factor Tcf. It participates to the recruitment of the chromatin remodeling enzyme, Hdac1 that represses the expression of Spemann organizer genes. Using a Xenopus tropicalis Tcf reporter line we demonstrate that Barhl2 inhibitory effect on Groucho-Tcf activities is maintained during embryogenesis and plays a role in the confinement of neural progenitors in the brain. Together, our results provide a new and important mechanism for the control of Wnt transcriptional activity.

The TCF/LEF transcriptional factors regulate the target genes of the Wnt signalling pathway - one of the key signalling mechanisms involved in development of multicellular organisms. The TCF/LEF genes produce a number of various protein isoforms, which consequently leads to a great functional diversity of the TCF/LEF proteins. In this diploma project we focused on the Caenorhabditis elegans gene pop-1, the ortholog of the TCF/LEF genes, whose isoforms have not been studied yet. Using the Northern blot analysis we tried to identify alternative isoforms of the pop-1 mRNA in C. elegans. Using quantitative RT-PCR we also analyzed the pop-1 mRNA levels during seven developmental stages of C. elegans. Further, we also determined the expression profile of two important partners of pop-1, the bar-1 and sys-1 genes, whose protein products function as transcriptional co-activators. Key words: canonical Wnt signaling pathway, TCF/LEF transcription factors, Caenorhabditis elegans, pop-1

Les récepteurs AMPAR sont les principaux responsables de la transmission excitatrice rapide dans le système nerveux central, y compris dans les neurones d’hippocampe étudiés ici. Ils sont très dynamiques dans la membrane. Au sein des épines dendritiques, ils peuvent se déplacer par traffic membranaire entre les compartiments intracellulaires et la membrane plasmique. Une fois à la surface, ils se déplacent par diffusion latérale et peuvent s'ancrer réversiblement avec des protéines de la densité postsynaptique ou retourner dans des compartiments endocytaires. Les oligomères Aß augmentent l'endocytose des récepteurs AMPAR, diminuent la densité des épines dendritique et provoquent des défaillances globales dans la transmission synaptique excitatrice. Ces effets, sont englobés dans le terme "synaptotoxicité des oligomères Aß" et sont un domaine principal d'étude de l'étiologie de la maladie d'Alzheimer. Wnt5a un ligand Wnt endogène connu pour activer la voie non-canonique dans les neurones d'hippocampe, génère une augmentation des courants excitateurs et des aggrégats de PSD95 et protége les neurones contre la synaptotoxicité des oligomères Aβ. Compte tenu du fait que Wnt5a semble contrecarrer les effets nocifs causés par les oligomères Aß, nous avons procédé à l'étude du mécanisme par lequel Wnt5a protège de la synaptotoxicité des oligomères Aβ. Cela nous a conduit à évaluer l'effet de Wnt5a sur l'un des facteurs dans la transmission glutamatergique, la dynamique des récepteurs AMPAR. En utilisant la microscopie à super-résolution dans les neurones d'hippocampe vivants et fixés, nous avons trouvé que Wnt5a module la dynamique et la localisation des récepteurs AMPAR. Plus précisément, Wnt5a stabilise les récepteurs AMPAR dans les sites synaptiques et extrasynaptiques. Ceci est corrélé avec une augmentation de la co-localisation et de l'interaction entre GluA2 et PSD95. Ces effets ne sont exercés que par l'activation non-canonique de la signalisation Wnt, à travers le ligand Wnt5a et non par les effets canoniques de Wnt7a. De manière intéressante, la pré-incubation de Wnt5a prévient la toxicité des oligomères Aß et maintient la dynamique basale des récepteurs AMPAR. Nos données suggèrent que Wnt5a empêche les effets des oligomères Aβ en favorisant leur stabilisation dans les sites synaptiques. / AMPARs (AMPARs) are responsible for most fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system, including hippocampal neurons studied here. AMPARs are highly dynamic in the plasma membrane. Within dendritic spines, they move by membrane trafficking between intracellular compartments and the plasma membrane. Once at the surface, they move through lateral brownian diffusion and can reversibly anchor to postsynaptic density proteins or return to endocytic compartments. Aβ oligomers increase endocytosis of AMPARs, diminish dendritic spine density and cause overall failures in excitatory transmission. These effects, among others, are englobed in the term “Aβ oligomers synaptotoxicity” and are a main focus on the study of Alzheimers disease ethiology. On the contrary, Wnt5a - an endogenous Wnt ligand known to activate the non-canonical pathway in hippocampal neurons - generates an increase in excitatory currents and in clusters of PSD95 and protects neurons against Aβ oligomers synaptotoxicity. Given the fact that Wnt5a seems to counteract the distresses caused by Aβ oligomers, we proceeded to study the mechanism through which Wnt5a protects from Aβ oligomers synaptotoxicity. This led us to evaluate the effect of Wnt5a on one of the important factors in glutamatergic transmission, i.e. AMPAR receptor dynamics. By using super-resolution microscopy in live and fixed hippocampal neurons, we found that Wnt5a modulates the dynamic and localization of AMPARs. Specifically, Wnt5a stabilizes AMPARs in synaptic and extrasynaptic sites. This correlates with an increase in co-localization and interaction between GluA2 and PSD95. These effects are exerted only by non-canonical activation of Wnt signaling, through Wnt5a ligand and not by the canonical effects of Wnt7a. Interestingly, pre-incubation of Wnt5a prevents toxicity of Aβ oligomers and maintains basal AMPARs dynamics. Our data suggest that Wnt5a prevents Aβ oligomers effects by promoting their stabilization in synaptic sites. / Los receptores AMPA (AMPARs) son los principales responsables de la respuesta excitatoria rápida en el sistema nervioso central, incluyendo neuronas hipocampales, estudiadas en esta tesis. A diferencia de otros receptores glutamatérgicos, los AMPARs son altamente dinámicos. Dentro de las espinas dendríticas, se pueden mover hacia y desde compartimentos endocíticos y hacia la membrana plasmática. Una vez en la superficie, a través de difusión lateral, se pueden anclar a proteínas de la densidad postsináptica o regresar a compartimentos endocíticos. Por otro lado, los oligómeros Aβ (oAβ) aumentan la endocitosis de AMPARs, disminuyen la densidad de espinas dendríticas y causan una falla generalizada de la transmisión sináptica excitatoria. Estos efectos, entre otros, se engloban en el término “sinaptotoxicidad por oAβ” y es uno de los principales puntos de estudio en la etiología de la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Al contrario, Wnt5a un ligando endógeno conocido por activar la vía no canónica en neuronas hipocampales, genera un aumento en corrientes excitatorias y en los clusters de PSD95 y protege a las neuronas contra la sinaptotoxicidad causada por oAβ. Debido a esto, procedimos a estudiar el mecanismo por el cual Wnt5a protege de la sinaptotoxicidad causada por Aβ. Esto nos llevó a evaluar los efectos de Wnt5a en uno de los principales factores en la transmisión glutamatérgica, la dinámica de los AMPARs. Con el uso de microscopía de super-resolución en neuronas hipocampales vivas, encontramos que Wnt5a modula la dinámica y localización de los AMPARs. Específicamente, Wnt5a estabiliza los AMPARs en espinas y dendritas. Lo cual se correlaciona con un aumento en la co-localización e interacción entre GluA2 y PSD95. Estos efectos son causados únicamente por la activación no-canónica de la vía Wnt, a través del ligando Wnt5a y no por los efectos canónicos de Wnt7a. De manera interesante, la pre-incubación de Wnt5a previene la toxicicidad de los oligómeros Aβ y mantiene la dinámica basal de los AMPARs. Esta data sugiere que Wnt5a promueve la estabilización de AMPARs, previniendo los efectos synaptotóxicos de los oAβ .