La Ténascine-C (TNC) est un composé majeur de la matrice extracellulaire tumorale et sa forte expression est directement corrélée à l’angiogenèse tumorale et au processus métastatique. Lors de ma thèse j’ai pu démontrer que la TNC dérégulait DKK1, un inhibiteur de la voie de signalisation Wnt et par ce biais augmentait l’activité de cette voie impliquée dans la cancérogenèse. La diminution de la formation des fibres de stress en présence de TNC est l’un des mécanismes majeurs qui contribue à la diminution de DKK1. L’activité de MKL1, facteur co-transcriptionnel de SRF et régulable par l’actine, s’avère diminuée en présence de TNC. Mes données indiquent que la fonction de MKL1 n’est peut-être pas le mécanisme majeur de la régulation de DKK1 par la statu de l’actine. D’autres facteurs, probablement liés aux fibres de stress d’actine pourraient être impliqués. L’augmentation de l’activité de la voie de signalisation Wnt, dépendante de DKK1, est probablement le mécanisme majeur par lequel la TNC active la progression tumorale. Cette étude a permis de mettre en évidence un nouveau mécanisme de régulation de DKK1 faisant intervenir l’intégrité du cytosquelette d’actine. / Tenascin-C (TNC) is a major component of the tumor specific extracellular matrix and its expression has been linked to tumor angiogenesis and metastasis. I demonstrated that TNC downregulates the expression of the Wnt signalling inhibitor DKK1 and by that enhances Wnt/-catenin signalling. Reduced stress fibre formation in the presence of TNC was identified as a major mechanism contributing to DKK1 downregulation. The activity of the actin-regulated SRF co-transcription factor MKL1 was found to be reduced in the presence of TNC. My results indicate that TNC-regulated MKL1 function maybe one, but not the major mechanism of DKK1 regulation by the actin status and that other factors, presumably regulated by actin stress fibres, are involved. Enhanced Wnt signalling activity downstream of TNC-induced DKK1 downregulation might be a major mechanism by which TNC promotes tumor progression. Furthermore, this study discovered a novel mechanism of regulating the Wnt inhibitor DKK1 by the integrity of the actin cytoskeleton.

No description available.

No description available.

Abstract This thesis focuses on mammalian kidney development and in particular on the question of how two Wnt signalling pathway genes, an antagonistic Dkk1 and an agonistic ligand Wnt5a, regulate the process. Wnts are secreted ligands that are involved in many developmental processes, including gonadal differentiation and kidney development, but also in various diseases and malformations. Wnts form a large signalling family containing 19 different glycoprotein ligands in mammals. Wnt signalling occurs via two different intracellular pathways. A canonical pathway proceeds via beta-catenin, and a non-canonical pathway utilizes other signalling molecules. Dkk1 is an antagonist of the canonical pathway and Wnt5a is considered a ligand that activates the non-canonical signalling pathway. As part of the thesis, I have studied the role of Dkk1 in kidney morphogenesis using a conditional mouse model, in which the gene is deleted in a cell specific manner from the collecting ducts. Dkk1 deficiency increased renal papilla growth and the risk of hydronephrosis. Research pointed out that the lack of Dkk1 in the collecting ducts increased cell proliferation and disturbed the balance of canonical Wnt signalling, which led to an overgrowth of renal papilla. This led to functional phenotypes including increased water reabsorption and changes in ion secretion/absorption. These changes are most likely due to altered Wnt7b signalling. The second part of the thesis examines the role of the non-canonical Wnt5a gene in kidney development with a conventional knock out mouse model. At the time work began on the thesis, no corresponding kidney phenotype had been published. The primary finding in kidneys lacking Wnt5a was an altered basement membrane organization of the collecting ducts and glomeruli. The phenotype is most likely the reason behind morphological phenotypes which vary from bilateral kidney agenesis to duplex collecting system. Notably, during the course of this study we found a mutation in the human WNT5A gene of a CAKUT patient. This is the first time Wnts have been shown to organize kidney development via basement membrane formation. / Tiivistelmä Tämän väitöskirjan tarkoituksena on ollut tutkia munuaisen kehitystä ja kuinka kaksi Wnt-signalointireitin geeniä, signalointia estävä Dkk1 ja signalointia edistävä Wnt5a säätelevät sitä. Wnt ligandit ovat eritettäviä signaalimolekyylejä, jotka ovat osallisina monissa kehitysbiologissa prosesseissa kuten sukupuolen määräytymisessä ja munuaisen kehityksessä. Myös monissa taudeissa on havaittu muuntuneita Wnt geenien tuottotasoja. Wnt-geenit muodostava suuren signalointimolekyyliperheen, johon lukeutuu 19 jäsentä nisäkkäillä ja Wnt-signointi on jaettu perinteisesti kahteen signalointiryhmään. Dkk1 on kanonisen Wnt-signaloinnin estäjä ja Wnt5a:ta pidetään pääsaantiöisesti ei-kanonisena Wnt-ligandina. Väitöskirjassani olen tutkinut Dkk1 geenin toimintaa kohdennetussa Dkk1-poistogeenisessä hiiressä, jossa geenin toiminta on poistettu spesifisesti munuaisen kokoojaputkista. Dkk1:n puutos johtaa munuaisen papillan kasvuun ja lisää riskiä hydronefroksen muodostumiseen. Tutkimukset osoittivat että Dkk1:n puutos aiheuttaa lisääntynyttä solujakautumista kokoojaputkissa, jolloin Wnt-signaloinnin muutos aiheuttaa papillan ylikasvua. Ylikasvusta seuraa lisääntynyttä veden takaisin imeytymistä ja muutoksia ionien erittämisessä ja takaisin imeytymisessä. Todennäköisimmin muutokset johtuvat muuntuneesta Wnt7b signaloinnista, jota Dkk1 normaalisti säätelee. Väitöskirjan toisessa osassa tutkittiin ei-kanonisen reitin Wnt5a ligandin roolia munuaisen kehityksessä käyttäen poistogeenistä hiirimallia, jossa Wnt5a:n roolia munuaisenkehityksessä ei ollut julkaistu työn aloituksen aikaan. Wnt5a:n puutoksen havaittiin vaikuttavan tyvikalvon järjestymiseen kokoojaputkissa ja munuaiskeräsessä. Tyvikalvon häiriö on todennäköisin syy morfologisiin muutoksiin, jotka vaihtelevat molempien munuaisen puuttumisesta kaksois-kokoojatiehyen muodostumiseen. Työssä osoitetaan ensimmäistä kertaa kuinka Wnt-signalointireitin proteiinit säätelevät munuaisen kehitystä tyvikalvon muodostuksen kautta.

Abstract Wnt genes encode secreted signalling molecules that control embryonic development including organogenesis, while dysregulated Wnt signalling is connected to many diseases such as cancer. Specifically, Wnts control a number of cellular processes such as proliferation, adhesion, differentiation and aging. Many Wnt proteins activate the canonical β-catenin signalling pathway that regulates transcription of a still poorly characterized set of target genes. Wnts also transduce their signaling in cells via β-catenin-independent “non-canonical” pathways, which are not well understood. In this study, Wnt-11 signalling mechanisms in a mammalian model cell line and roles of Wnt-11 in heart development were analyzed in detail. In addition the aim was to identify new Wnt target genes by direct chromatin immunoprecipitation and Affymetrix GeneChip assays in the model cells exposed to Wnt-3a. Our studies reveal that Wnt-11 signalling coordinates the activity of key cell signalling pathways, namely the canonical Wnt/β-catenin, the JNK/AP-1, the NF-κB and PI3K/Akt pathways in the CHO cells. Analysis of the Wnt-11-deficient embryos revealed a crucial role in heart organogenesis. Wnt-11 signalling coordinates cell interactions during assembly of the myocardial wall and Wnt-11 localizes the expression of N-cadherin and β-catenin to specific cellular domains in the embryonic ventricular cardiomyocytes. Collectively these studies reveal that the mammalian Wnt-11 behaves as a non-canonical Wnt and that it is a critical factor in the coordination of heart development. Specifically, it controls components of the cell adhesion machinery. Analysis of the Wnt target genes revealed a highly context-dependent profile in the Wnt-regulated genes. Several new putative target genes were discovered. Out of the candidate Wnt target genes, Disabled-2 was identified as a potential new direct target for Wnt signalling.

Radim Žídek "Wnt/β-catenin signalling in the development of the marine annelid Platynereis dumerilii" (dissertation) Abstract: Wnt/β-catenin signalling is absolutely crucial for the early embryonic development of metazoan animals from the establishment of body axes, through the specification of germ layers and tissues to the development of organ systems. I used pharmacological manipulations of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway activity in the planktonic larvae of the marine polychaete annelid Platynereis dumerilii, the representative of the clade Spiralia, to investigate the role of Wnt/β- catenin signalling in the development and evolution of three hallmarks of Bilateria: the central nervous system, the body segmentation and the digestive tube. Wnt proteins are produced in all three aforementioned systems in Platynereis where they trigger the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in neighbouring cells. I describe here, for the first time in Platynereis, a homologue of the endpoint transcription factor of the entire pathway, Pdu-Tcf, which is subjected to an alternative splicing and along with a Wnt target gene Pdu-Axin is expressed in tissues with the active Wnt signalling - in the brain ganglia, in the neuroectoderm along the ventral midline, in segments, in the posterior growth zone and in the gut. Pharmacological manipulations...

L’ostéoarthrose (OA) est une pathologie de forte incidence affectant les articulations. Elle est caractérisée principalement par une dégradation du cartilage articulaire, un déséquilibre au niveau du remodelage osseux et une sclérose de l’os sous-chondral. L’étiologie de cette pathologie reste encore méconnue, cependant il semble de plus en plus que tous les tissus composant l’articulation soient affectés dans cette pathologie. L’importance du rôle de l’os dans le développement de l’OA est incontestable et représente donc une cible thérapeuthique intéressante. Des études effectuées par tomodensitométrie ont démontré une structure et une organisation anormales du tissu osseux des patients OA. Parallèlement, les cultures primaires d’ostéoblastes (Ob) humains OA issus de l’os sous-chondral démontrent un phénotype altéré et une faible minéralisation in vitro. La signalisation Wnt, essentielle dans l’embryogenèse, a montré avoir un rôle clé dans la régulation de l’ostéogenèse en régulant notamment la différenciation terminale des Ob. Le facteur de croissance transformant-β1 (TGF-β1), un facteur agissant notamment sur la prolifération et sur le début de la différenciation des Ob, est surexprimé par les Ob OA et pourrait moduler cette signalisation. Aussi, deux populations de patients OA peuvent être différenciées in vitro par la production de prostaglandines E2 (PGE2) par leurs Ob et les PGE2, dans une étude sur le cancer colorectal, ont montré moduler la signalisation Wnt. Notre hypothèse de travail est que l’activation de la voie de signalisation Wnt/β-caténine est diminuée dans les Ob OA. Cette diminution est responsable de la sous-minéralisation et de l’altération du phénotype des Ob humains OA. Par ailleurs, DKK2, dont l’expression est contrôlée par TGF-β1, est responsable de la diminution de l’activité Wnt/β-caténine et les PGE2 peuvent en partie corriger cette situation. L’objectif général de cette étude est d’une part, de démontrer le rôle de TGF-β1, DKK2 et de PGE2 sur l’altération de la signalisation Wnt/β-caténine et d’autre part, de démontrer le lien entre TGF-β1 et DKK2 et l’effet de ces derniers sur le phénotype des Ob. Dans cette étude on a montré que la signalisation canonique Wnt est altérée dans les Ob OA et que cela était responsable de l’altération du phénotype des Ob OA. On a montré, parmi les acteurs de la signalisation Wnt, que l’expression de l’antagoniste Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) était relativement similaire entre les Ob OA et normaux contrairement à celle de l’antagoniste DKK2 qui était augmentée et à celle de l’agoniste Wnt7B qui était diminuée dans les Ob OA. On a également montré que les PGE2 pouvaient potentialiser l’activité de la signalisation Wnt dans les Ob OA. L’inhibition de DKK2 a permis d’augmenter l’activité de la signalisation Wnt et de corriger le phénotype anormal ainsi que d’augmenter la minéralisation des Ob OA. L’inhibition de TGF-β1, un facteur aussi surexprimé dans les Ob OA, a également permis la correction du phénotype et l’augmentation de la minéralisation dans les Ob OA. L’inhibition de TGF-β1 a aussi menée à l’inhibition de DKK2. Le contraire ne fût pas observé démontrant ainsi la régulation de DKK2 par TGF-β1. En conclusion, la signalisation canonique Wnt est diminuée dans les Ob OA et cela est dû au niveau élevé de DKK2 dans ces Ob. TGF-β1 régule positivement DKK2 et donc la surexpression de TGF-β1 entraîne celle de DKK2 ce qui a pour conséquences d’altérer le phénotype des Ob. Les PGE2 ont aussi montré pouvoir potentialiser l’activité de la signalisation Wnt et auraient donc un rôle positif. Ensemble, ces données suggèrent que ces altérations au niveau des Ob OA pourraient être responsables de la structure osseuse anormale observée chez les patients OA. / Osteoarthritis (OA) is a disease affecting joints and it has a very strong incidence in the population. It is characterized by articular cartilage degradation, an abnormal bone remodelling cycle and subchondral bone sclerosis. The aetiology of this disease is still unknown although OA is now considered as a joint disease involving all the tissues of the joint. The importance of bone in OA pathogenesis is now considered as fundamental and thus bone represent an interesting target for treatments. Tomodensitometric studies have shown an abnormal structure and organisation of the bone tissue of OA patients. In parallel, primary human OA osteoblast (Ob) cultures grown from the tibiofemoral subchondral bone show an abnormal phenotype and a reduced mineralization in vitro. The Wnt signalling pathway, known primarily for its important role in embryogenesis, is of utmost importance in osteogenesis and it has been shown to regulate terminal Ob differentiation. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), known to act on proliferation and on early phases of the differentiation of Ob, is overexpressed by OA Ob and could also modulate the Wnt signalling activity. Furthermore, two populations of OA patients can be discriminated in vitro by the production of prostaglandins E2 (PGE2) of their Ob. In a study on colorectal cancer, PGE2 was shown to modulate the canonical Wnt signalling pathway. Our hypothesis is that canonical Wnt signalling is diminished in OA Ob. This reduction is responsible for the poor mineralization and the abnormal phenotype of human OA Ob. Furthermore, DKK2, overexpressed in OA Ob and whose expression is controlled by TGF-β1, is responsible for the diminution of Wnt signalling activity, and PGE2 can partly correct this situation. The general goal of this study is twofold: 1) to demonstrate the role of TGF-β1, DKK2 and of PGE2 in the Wnt signalling activity; 2) to demonstrate the link between TGF-β1 and DKK2 and their effect on the abnormal OA Ob phenotype. We have shown in this study that the canonical Wnt signalling pathway is altered in OA Ob and that this was responsible for the altered phenotype observed in OA Ob. Also, we have shown that among the mediators of the Wnt signalling pathway, the expression of antagonist Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) was similar between OA and normal Ob. In contrast, the antagonist DKK2 was overexpressed and the expression of the agonist Wnt7B was low in OA Ob. Moreover, PGE2 increased Wnt signalling activity in OA Ob. The inhibition of DKK2 expression also increased Wnt signalling activity and corrected the abnormal phenotype along with increasing the mineralization of OA Ob. The inhibition of TGF-β1 expression, also overexpressed in OA Ob, also resulted in the correction of the phenotype and increased the mineralization of OA Ob. Inhibiting TGF-β1 expression also led to DKK2 inhibition. As the contrary was not observed, this demonstrated that TGF-β1 could regulate DKK2 expression. To conclude, Wnt signalling is reduced in OA Ob and this is due to elevated DKK2 levels in these cells. High levels of TGF-β1 in OA Ob increased DKK2 expression which could be responsible, at least partially, for their altered phenotype. PGE2 was shown to also increase Wnt signalling activity in OA Ob. Taken together these data suggest that such alterations in OA Ob could be responsible for the abnormal bone structure observed in OA patients.

Wnt signalling represents an important mechanism participating in control of cellular and developmental processes, including establishment of cell polarity, cell fate specification, stem cell self-renewal, tissue patterning and organogenesis, homeostasis maintenance and regeneration. Misregulation of the Wnt signalling during embryogenesis leads to developmental defects while aberrant activation later in development is associated with degenerative diseases and a number of cancers. The presented PhD thesis is based on four original publications that deal with the post-translational modifications of Wnt ligands and molecular mechanisms contributing to the regulation of a transcriptional profile of the so-called canonical Wnt pathway. Wnt signalling pathway is used repetitively both in time and different cellular contexts throughout development of multicellular organisms. Inevitably, in each single situation -catenin/TCF complexes, the downstream effectors, induce only subsets of all potential target genes. How this differential tissue- and stage-specific control over various subsets of target genes is achieved with such a limited number of nuclear effectors is not fully understood. Along with the expression of specific LEF/TCF family members or their variants containing different functional domains...

L’ostéoarthrose (OA) est une pathologie de forte incidence affectant les articulations. Elle est caractérisée principalement par une dégradation du cartilage articulaire, un déséquilibre au niveau du remodelage osseux et une sclérose de l’os sous-chondral. L’étiologie de cette pathologie reste encore méconnue, cependant il semble de plus en plus que tous les tissus composant l’articulation soient affectés dans cette pathologie. L’importance du rôle de l’os dans le développement de l’OA est incontestable et représente donc une cible thérapeuthique intéressante. Des études effectuées par tomodensitométrie ont démontré une structure et une organisation anormales du tissu osseux des patients OA. Parallèlement, les cultures primaires d’ostéoblastes (Ob) humains OA issus de l’os sous-chondral démontrent un phénotype altéré et une faible minéralisation in vitro. La signalisation Wnt, essentielle dans l’embryogenèse, a montré avoir un rôle clé dans la régulation de l’ostéogenèse en régulant notamment la différenciation terminale des Ob. Le facteur de croissance transformant-β1 (TGF-β1), un facteur agissant notamment sur la prolifération et sur le début de la différenciation des Ob, est surexprimé par les Ob OA et pourrait moduler cette signalisation. Aussi, deux populations de patients OA peuvent être différenciées in vitro par la production de prostaglandines E2 (PGE2) par leurs Ob et les PGE2, dans une étude sur le cancer colorectal, ont montré moduler la signalisation Wnt. Notre hypothèse de travail est que l’activation de la voie de signalisation Wnt/β-caténine est diminuée dans les Ob OA. Cette diminution est responsable de la sous-minéralisation et de l’altération du phénotype des Ob humains OA. Par ailleurs, DKK2, dont l’expression est contrôlée par TGF-β1, est responsable de la diminution de l’activité Wnt/β-caténine et les PGE2 peuvent en partie corriger cette situation. L’objectif général de cette étude est d’une part, de démontrer le rôle de TGF-β1, DKK2 et de PGE2 sur l’altération de la signalisation Wnt/β-caténine et d’autre part, de démontrer le lien entre TGF-β1 et DKK2 et l’effet de ces derniers sur le phénotype des Ob. Dans cette étude on a montré que la signalisation canonique Wnt est altérée dans les Ob OA et que cela était responsable de l’altération du phénotype des Ob OA. On a montré, parmi les acteurs de la signalisation Wnt, que l’expression de l’antagoniste Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) était relativement similaire entre les Ob OA et normaux contrairement à celle de l’antagoniste DKK2 qui était augmentée et à celle de l’agoniste Wnt7B qui était diminuée dans les Ob OA. On a également montré que les PGE2 pouvaient potentialiser l’activité de la signalisation Wnt dans les Ob OA. L’inhibition de DKK2 a permis d’augmenter l’activité de la signalisation Wnt et de corriger le phénotype anormal ainsi que d’augmenter la minéralisation des Ob OA. L’inhibition de TGF-β1, un facteur aussi surexprimé dans les Ob OA, a également permis la correction du phénotype et l’augmentation de la minéralisation dans les Ob OA. L’inhibition de TGF-β1 a aussi menée à l’inhibition de DKK2. Le contraire ne fût pas observé démontrant ainsi la régulation de DKK2 par TGF-β1. En conclusion, la signalisation canonique Wnt est diminuée dans les Ob OA et cela est dû au niveau élevé de DKK2 dans ces Ob. TGF-β1 régule positivement DKK2 et donc la surexpression de TGF-β1 entraîne celle de DKK2 ce qui a pour conséquences d’altérer le phénotype des Ob. Les PGE2 ont aussi montré pouvoir potentialiser l’activité de la signalisation Wnt et auraient donc un rôle positif. Ensemble, ces données suggèrent que ces altérations au niveau des Ob OA pourraient être responsables de la structure osseuse anormale observée chez les patients OA. / Osteoarthritis (OA) is a disease affecting joints and it has a very strong incidence in the population. It is characterized by articular cartilage degradation, an abnormal bone remodelling cycle and subchondral bone sclerosis. The aetiology of this disease is still unknown although OA is now considered as a joint disease involving all the tissues of the joint. The importance of bone in OA pathogenesis is now considered as fundamental and thus bone represent an interesting target for treatments. Tomodensitometric studies have shown an abnormal structure and organisation of the bone tissue of OA patients. In parallel, primary human OA osteoblast (Ob) cultures grown from the tibiofemoral subchondral bone show an abnormal phenotype and a reduced mineralization in vitro. The Wnt signalling pathway, known primarily for its important role in embryogenesis, is of utmost importance in osteogenesis and it has been shown to regulate terminal Ob differentiation. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), known to act on proliferation and on early phases of the differentiation of Ob, is overexpressed by OA Ob and could also modulate the Wnt signalling activity. Furthermore, two populations of OA patients can be discriminated in vitro by the production of prostaglandins E2 (PGE2) of their Ob. In a study on colorectal cancer, PGE2 was shown to modulate the canonical Wnt signalling pathway. Our hypothesis is that canonical Wnt signalling is diminished in OA Ob. This reduction is responsible for the poor mineralization and the abnormal phenotype of human OA Ob. Furthermore, DKK2, overexpressed in OA Ob and whose expression is controlled by TGF-β1, is responsible for the diminution of Wnt signalling activity, and PGE2 can partly correct this situation. The general goal of this study is twofold: 1) to demonstrate the role of TGF-β1, DKK2 and of PGE2 in the Wnt signalling activity; 2) to demonstrate the link between TGF-β1 and DKK2 and their effect on the abnormal OA Ob phenotype. We have shown in this study that the canonical Wnt signalling pathway is altered in OA Ob and that this was responsible for the altered phenotype observed in OA Ob. Also, we have shown that among the mediators of the Wnt signalling pathway, the expression of antagonist Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) was similar between OA and normal Ob. In contrast, the antagonist DKK2 was overexpressed and the expression of the agonist Wnt7B was low in OA Ob. Moreover, PGE2 increased Wnt signalling activity in OA Ob. The inhibition of DKK2 expression also increased Wnt signalling activity and corrected the abnormal phenotype along with increasing the mineralization of OA Ob. The inhibition of TGF-β1 expression, also overexpressed in OA Ob, also resulted in the correction of the phenotype and increased the mineralization of OA Ob. Inhibiting TGF-β1 expression also led to DKK2 inhibition. As the contrary was not observed, this demonstrated that TGF-β1 could regulate DKK2 expression. To conclude, Wnt signalling is reduced in OA Ob and this is due to elevated DKK2 levels in these cells. High levels of TGF-β1 in OA Ob increased DKK2 expression which could be responsible, at least partially, for their altered phenotype. PGE2 was shown to also increase Wnt signalling activity in OA Ob. Taken together these data suggest that such alterations in OA Ob could be responsible for the abnormal bone structure observed in OA patients.

This body of work is concerned with the genetics of craniofacial morphology and specifically with that of the cranial sutures which form fibrous articulations between the calvarial bones. The premature fusion of these sutures, known as craniosynostosis, is a common developmental abnormality and has been extensively utilised here as a tool through which to study the genetics of suture morphogenesis and craniofacial diversity. Investigations began with a search for polymorphisms associated with normal variation in human craniofacial characteristics. Denaturing High-Performance Liquid chromatography was used to identify polymorphisms in two genes causative for craniosynostosis by analysing DNA from a large cohort of individuals from four ethnogeographic populations. A single nucleotide polymorphism in fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 was identified as being associated with variation in the cephalic index, a common measure of cranial shape. To further, and specifically, investigate the molecular processes of suture morphogenesis gene expression was compared between unfused and prematurely fusing/fused suture tissues isolated from patients with craniosynostosis. Two approaches, both utilising Affymetrix gene expression microarrays, were used to identify genes differentially expressed during premature suture fusion. The first was a novel method which utilised the observation that explant cells from both fused and unfused suture tissue, cultured in minimal medium, produce a gene expression profile characteristic of minimally differentiated osteoblastic cells. Consequently, gene expression was compared between prematurely fused suture tissues and their corresponding in vitro de-differentiated cells. In addition to those genes known to be involved in suture morphogenesis, a large number of novel genes were identified which were up-regulated in the differentiated in vivo state and are thus implicated in premature suture fusion and in vivo osteoblast differentiation. The second microarray study involved an extensive analysis of 16 suture tissues and compared gene expression between unfused (n=9) and fusing/fused sutures (n=7). Again, both known genes and a substantially large number of novel genes were identified as being differentially expressed. Some of these novel genes included retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4), glypican 3 (GPC3), C1q tumour necrosis factor 3 (C1QTNF3), and WNT inhibitory factor 1 (WIF1). The known functions of these genes are suggestive of potential roles in suture morphogenesis. Realtime quantitative RT PCR (QRT-PCR) was used to verify the differential expression patterns observed for 11 genes and Western blot analysis and confocal microscopy was used to investigate the protein expression for 3 genes of interest. RBP4 was found to be localised on the ectocranial surface of unfused sutures and in cells lining the osteogenic fronts while GPC3 was localised to suture mesenchyme of unfused sutures. A comparison between each unfused suture (coronal, sagittal, metopic, and lambdoid) demonstrated that gene expression profiles are suture-specific which, based on the identification of differentially expressed genes, suggests possible molecular bases for the differential timing of normal fusion and the response of each suture to different craniosynostosis mutations. One observation of particular interest was the presence of cartilage in unfused lambdoid sutures, suggesting a role for chondrogenesis in posterior skull sutures which have generally been thought to develop by intramembranous ossification without a cartilage precursor. Finally, the effects of common media supplements used in in vitro experiments to stimulate differentiation of calvarial suture-derived cells were investigated with respect to their ability to induce in vivo-like gene expression. The response to standard differentiation medium (ascorbic acid + β-glycerophosphate) with and without dexamethasone was measured by both mineralisation and matrix formation assays and QRT-PCR of genes identified in the above described microarray studies. Both media induced collagen matrix and bone nodule formation indicative of differentiating osteoblasts. However, the genes expression profiles induced by both media differed and neither recapitulated the levels and profiles of gene expression observed in vivo for cells isolated from both fused and unfused suture tissues. This study has implications for translating results from in vitro work to the in vivo situation. Significantly, the dedifferentiation microarray study identified differentially expressed genes whose products may be considered candidates as more appropriate osteogenic supplements that may be used during in vitro experiments to better induce in vivo-like osteoblast differentiation. This study has made a substantial contribution to the identification of novel genes and pathways involved in controlling human suture morphogenesis and craniofacial diversity. The results from this research will stimulate new areas of inquiry which will one day aid in the development of better diagnostics and therapeutics for craniosynostosis, and other craniofacial and more general skeletal abnormalities.