The objectives of the research were: (1) to conceptualise work-family conflict, stress, work engagement and personality from a theoretical perspective, exploring definitions, theoretical models and dimensions; (2) to investigate the relationship between work-family conflict, stress and work engagement; and (3) determine whether the Big Five personality traits influence how working women manage work-family conflict, stress and work engagement. A non-probability sample (n = 450) of working women aged 25 and older with children between 18 years and younger participated in the study. The findings of the study and the practical implications provide useful information about how working women with different personalities manage work-family conflict and stress, and how they can be engaged at work. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Com. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

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Thesis (M. A. (Sociology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Education is of paramount value to the empowerment of women and also brings about positive change in our societies. Higher Education has since been in existence for so many years. Traditionally, its management structure has always been dominated by males. The government has since put in effort to ensure we have female representation in management positions. However, progress in this endeavour has been somewhat slow, regardless of the efforts made. Accordingly, this study sought to explore why gender imbalances continue to exist in institutions of Higher Education, particularly at the University of Limpopo. The study was conducted with fifteen women in management positions. The study highlighted the causes of gender imbalances in management positions and further captures the voices of women in management positions. The study also documented the roles women play in this institution and also includes strategies that can be put in place to address the problems raised. This has been captured from the women’s perspective as the study used feminist qualitative research methods. This meant that the study was conducted in terms of the participants’ perspective as feminist research methods suggests. The analysis has been completed using the Thematic Analysis approach as the themes that emerged were coded and analysed from that point. The study revealed that there is still gender imbalance in management positions in the University of Limpopo. According to the study, this was due to a number of factors such as the multiple roles women play that delay them to progress academically. Also, this showed that only few women met the requirements for occupying management positions as the criterion for highest qualification was not met by many in order to enable them to apply for these positions. In the category of women that did not meet the requirements, there have been delays in them obtaining their doctoral studies and some showed no interest in applying for the jobs given the number of challenges faced by those women that are in management positions. These, amongst others, included the deep patriarchal culture entrenched by men at the University of Limpopo who feel uncomfortable to be led by women.

Historically, Black women‘s workplace experiences have been understudied, partially due to an implicit assumption that their experiences are subsumed by research on Black men and/or White women. This oversight is even more evident in the field of management. However, considerable attention has been given to the debate about whether Black women are at a double advantage (i.e., as supposed affirmative action ―two-for-one bargains‖) or at a double disadvantage due to their double marginalizing characteristics. Empirical research in the area has found support for each side, furthering the debate, but also advancing an overly simplistic explanation for a set of experiences that is certainly much more complicated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the conditions under which Black women, when seeking managerial employment, are at a double advantage or disadvantage, using Critical Race Feminism, Cox‘s Interactional Model of Cultural Diversity (IMCD; 1994), and theories of social categorization as the theoretical foundation. A 2 (sex) x 2 (race) x 2 (demographic composition of the workplace) betweensubjects design was used to test the hypotheses that the Black female applicant would have a double disadvantage in a more demographically balanced organization and double advantage in an organization that is more White and male. Participants (N = 361) reviewed information about an organization (where demographic composition was manipulated) and three available management positions. They also reviewed a fictional professional networking profile of a job applicant where race and sex were manipulated iv through photos, and job qualifications and experience were held constant. Based on all of the information, they rated the applicant on his/her suitability for the jobs. Results of planned contrasts and ANOVAs showed partial support for the hypotheses. In the balanced organization, the Black female applicant was rated lower in suitability for entry-level management than the Black male and White female applicants. Likewise, she was rated higher than the Black male and White female applicants in the less diverse organization, when evaluated for upper-level management. Thus, the study clarifies the theories of double advantage and double disadvantage by identifying organizational composition as a moderator of the relationship between applicant race/sex and employment outcomes (i.e., management suitability ratings). The implications of these findings are discussed.

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This study examined changes between 1950 and 1970 in women's aggregate occupational position in 168 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Specifically, the research was designed to study three aspects of women's occupational position. First, women's distribution across occupational categories (absolute position) was examined. Absolute position was defined as the percent of working women in professional and managerial occupations. Second, women's occupational position compared to men (relative position) was examined. This involved women's share of the total jobs in each occupational category. Third, the statistical relationship between women's occupational position and their labor force participation rate was investigated using zero-order correlations.