Effective mental workload measurement is critical because mental workload significantly affects human performance. A non-invasive and objective workload measurement tool is needed to overcome limitations of current mental workload measures. Further, training/learning increases mental workload during skill or knowledge acquisition, followed by a decreased mental workload, though sufficient training times are unknown. The objectives of this study were to: (1) investigate the efficacy of using thermography as a non-contact physiological measure to quantify mental workload, (2) quantify and describe the relationship between mental workload and learning/training, and, (3) introduce a method to determine a sufficient training time and an optimal human performance level for a novel task by using thermography. Three studies were conducted to address these objectives. The first study investigated the efficacy of using thermography to quantity the relationship between mental workload and facial temperature changes while learning an alpha-numeric task. Thermography measured and quantified the mental workload level successfully. Strong and significant correlations were found among thermography, performance, and subjective workload measures (MCH and SWAT ratings). The second study investigated the utility of using a psychophysical approach to determine workload levels that maximize performance on a cognitive task. The second study consisted of an adjustment session (participants adjusted their own workload levels) and work session (participants worked at the chosen workload level). Participants were found to fall into two performance groups (low and high performers by accuracy rate) and results were significantly different. Thermography demonstrated whether both group found their optimal workload level. The last study investigated efficacy of using thermography to quantify mental workload level in a complex training/learning environment. Experienced drivers’ performance data was used as criteria to indicate whether novice drivers mastered the driving skills. Strong and significant correlations were found among thermography, subjective workload measures, and performance measures in novice drivers. This study verified that thermography is a reliable and valid way to measure workload as a non-invasive and objective method. Also, thermography provided more practical results than subjective workload measures for simple and complex cognitive tasks. Thermography showed the capability to identify a sufficient training time for simple or complex cognitive tasks.

The primary contribution of this thesis is the development of a new performance metric, Capacity, which evaluates the performance of Chip Heterogeneous Multiprocessors (CHMs) that process multiple heterogeneous channels. Performance metrics are required in order to evaluate any system, including computer systems. A lack of appropriate metrics can lead to ambiguous or incorrect results, something discovered while developing the secondary contribution of this thesis, that of workload modes for CHMs — or Workload Specific Processors (WSPs). For many decades, computer architects and designers have focused on techniques that reduce latency and increase throughput. The change in modern computer systems built around CHMs that process multi-channel communications in the service of single users calls this focus into question. Modern computer systems are expected to integrate tens to hundreds of processor cores onto single chips, often used in the service of single users, potentially as a way to access the Internet. Here, the design goal is to integrate as much functionality as possible during a given time window. Without the ability to correctly identify optimal designs, not only will the best performing designs not be found, but resources will be wasted and there will be a lack of insight to what leads to better performing designs. To address performance evaluation challenges of the next generation of computer systems, such as multicore computers inside of cell phones, we found that a structurally different metric is needed and proceeded to develop such a metric. In contrast to single-valued metrics, Capacity is a surface with dimensionality related to the number of input streams, or channels, processed by the CHM. We develop some fundamental Capacity curves in two dimensions and show how Capacity shapes reveal interaction of not only programs and data, but the interaction of multiple data streams as they compete for access to resources on a CHM as well. For the analysis of Capacity surface shapes, we propose the development of a demand characterization method in which its output is in the form of a surface. By overlaying demand surfaces over Capacity surfaces, we are able to identify when a system meets its demands and by how much. Using the Capacity metric, computer performance optimization is evaluated against workloads in the service of individual users instead of individual applications, aggregate applications, or parallel applications. Because throughput was originally derived by drawing analogies between processor design and pipelines in the automobile industry, we introduce our Capacity metric for CHMs by drawing an analogy to automobile production, signifying that Capacity is the successor to throughput. By developing our Capacity metric, we illustrate how and why different processor organizations cannot be understood as being better performers without both magnitude and shape analysis in contrast to other metrics, such as throughput, that consider only magnitude. In this work, we make the following major contributions: • Definition and development of the Capacity metric as a surface with dimensionality related to the number of input streams, or channels, processed by the CHM. • Techniques for analysis of the Capacity metric. Since the Capacity metric was developed out of necessity, while pursuing the development of WSPs, this work also makes the following minor contributions: • Definition and development of three foundations in order to establish an experimental foundation — a CHM model, a multimedia cell phone example, and a Workload Specific Processor (WSP). • Definition of Workload Modes, which was the original objective of this thesis. • Definition and comparison of two approaches to workload mode identification at run time; The Workload Classification Model (WCM) and another model that is based on Hidden Markov Models (HMMs). • Development of a foundation for analysis of the Capacity metric, so that the impact of architectural features in a CHM may be better understood. In order to do this, we develop a Demand Characterization Method (DCM) that characterizes the demand of a specific usage pattern in the form of a curve (or a surface in general). By doing this, we will be able to overlay demand curves over Capacity curves of different architectures to compare their performance and thus identify optimal performing designs. / Ph. D.

Current research on Career Ladder Teacher Incentive Plans indicates a need to go beyond the usual description of legislation, career ladder plans, teacher evaluation procedures and "intent" of the policymakers. This study uses a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to examine the interaction among teacher participation on a career ladder project, student achievement and teacher characteristics. Student achievement test scores over a two year period were analyzed. One group of students had teachers who participated for two years on a career ladder and the other group had teachers who did not participate the two years. One hundred forty teachers and two thousand two hundred sixty-three students in grades 3, 4 and 5 were analyzed in order to identify differences in test scores due to teacher participation. Contrasts were drawn between teachers as participants and non-participants on the career ladder, years of experience and education and their influence on how students scored on a State Mandated Norm Referenced Test, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Comparisons of the two groups in the study lead to some fairly consistent results. Even though there were no variables that impacted the achievement scores from a statistically significant standpoint, when the factor of "time" was defined in terms of Ladder and non-Ladder participation, the two year group showed statistically different results from the one year group. The results of this study indicate that a Career Ladder Program in the course of one year or two years would not significantly impact student achievement. However, the element of time is an important factor when looking at the potential for career ladder impact on student achievement. This factor should be considered in any quest for immediate versus long term success patterns of such plans.

Tenured and tenure-track faculty members at institutions of higher education, especially those at Research I institutions, are being asked to do more than ever before. With rapidly changing technology, significant decreases in public funding, the shift toward privately funded research, and the ever increasing expectations of students for an education that adequately prepares them for professional careers, engineering faculty are particularly challenged by the escalating demands on their time. In 1996, the primary accreditation organization for engineering programs (ABET) adopted new criteria that required, among other things, engineering programs to teach students to function on multidisciplinary teams and to communicate effectively. In response, most engineering programs utilize project teams as a strategy for teaching these skills. The purpose of this qualitative study of tenured and tenure track engineering faculty at a Research I institution in the southwestern United States was to explore the variety of ways in which the engineering faculty responded to the demands placed upon them as a result of the increased emphasis on project teams in undergraduate engineering education. Social role theory and organizational climate theory guided the study. Some faculty viewed project teams as an opportunity for students to learn important professional skills and to benefit from collaborative learning but many questioned the importance and feasibility of teaching teamwork skills and had concerns about taking time away from other essential fundamental material such as mathematics, basic sciences and engineering sciences. Although the administration of the College of Engineering articulated strong support for the use of project teams in undergraduate education, the prevailing climate did little to promote significant efforts related to effective utilization of project teams. Too often, faculty were unwilling to commit sufficient time or effort to make project teamwork a truly valuable learning opportunity because those efforts were not perceived to be valuable and were rarely rewarded. Few formal professional development opportunities were available and few incentives were in place to encourage other informal efforts to develop the necessary skills. Those who committed significant effort to project teams were challenged by concerns about team composition, student accountability and assigning individual grades for group teamwork.

High turnover among auditor assistants is a problem in the auditor profession. 61,7 % of young graduates economists have changed profession at least once during their first three years as employees (Hiltebeitel & Leauby, 2001), heavy workload in the auditing profession is considered to be a contributing factor (Axelsson, 2015). The main purpose of the study is to explain how students' views on the workload affects staff turnover among auditor assistants. In addition, the aim is to describe the expectations of a corresponding expectation gap between students and auditor assistants. In order to achieve the purpose of the study, behavioural theories such as Theory of Planned Behavior and Social Cognitive Theory have been adopted. Further, the Expectation Theory, Identity Theory, Theory of Professions and previous studies of the expectation gap and workload, stress and time pressure are used. The study is based on a combination method based on three interviews with auditor assistants, to develop an understanding of auditor assistants experience of the workload. Subsequently a questionnaire was sent to students with a total of 134 received answers. A short questionnaire with three questions similar to those sent out to students has also been sent to the auditor assistants, with a total of 43 received answers. The results shows that there is an expectation gap considering workload between students and auditor assistants. Further aspects have emerged as contributing factors to high staff turnover in the auditor profession, such as expectations for salary and work content.

Every year, approximately 3000 people die as the result of physical trauma in Sweden (Gedeborg, Chen, Thiblin, & Byberg, 2012). Many of these deaths occurs outside of the hospital and are preventable, including some caused by hemorrhage. One hemorrhage control device is the tourniquet which can be used in a civilian pre-hospital setting. The effects of stress on a laypersons tourniquet application ability is unknown and to date only one study have examined the effects of stress on tourniquet application in a military population (Schreckengaust, Littlejohn, & Zarow, 2014). The purpose of this study was to investigate how the performance of two first aid interventions, tourniquet application and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), is affected by stress in immediate (layperson) and first (professional) responders. A total of 55 participants followed a brief educational program about hemorrhage control. Their ability to apply a tourniquet and perform CPR was tested in a calm classroom scenario and a stressful scenario, which consisted of paintball fire and an obstacle course. Stress was assessed through subjective reports of stress, physiological heart rate and heart rate variability measurements, and subjective workload and with a secondary task. The results showed differences of elicited stress reaction between the conditions and groups. Tourniquet and CPR performance was moderately affected by stress. Participants across all groups experienced more stress reactions during the stressful scenario, and laypersons did experience more stress reactions than professional first responders. In conclusion, the method did make participants experience more stress reactions in terms of psychological, physiological and performance adaptations in the stressful scenario. However, the results need to be replicated and a list of suggested improvements are given, such as: examining the fidelity of the scenarios, validating the tourniquet application assessment method, and examining the relationship between tourniquet application performance and self-assessed performance.

Purpose: To introduce the simplified therapeutic intervention scoring system (TISS-28), the original therapeutic intervention scoring system (TISS-76) and simplified acute physiological score (SAPS) version II in critically ill adult patients, in order to describe the validity and reliability of TISS-28 as a suitable measure of quantifying nursing workload in the adult intensive care units (ICU) of a public sector hospital in Johannesburg. Objectives: To describe the profile of patient admissions to the intensive care units, to investigate the impact of the patients’ profile on the requirements for nursing workload and to validate the use of TISS-28 as a measure of quantifying nursing workload in this setting. Design: A non-experimental, comparative descriptive, correlational and prospective two-staged design was utilized to meet the study objectives. Stage I involved face and content validation of TISS-28 by a panel of ICU nurse experts (n=6). Stage II involved assessment of concurrent and construct validity as well as inter-rater reliability of TISS-28 using participants (n=105) drawn from trauma, cardiothoracic and multidisciplinary ICUs. Data necessary for the calculation of TISS-28, TISS-76 and SAPS II were recorded for each patient in the ICU at 24 and 48 hours after admission and in the wards after discharge within 24-48 hours. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze data. Results: Content Validity Index (CVI) of 0.93 was found for TISS-28. A significant positive correlation was found between TISS-28 and TISS-76 scores (r = 0.7857, p = 0.0001) as well as TISS-28 and SAPS II scores (r = 0.2098, p = 0.0317). A significant difference was found between TISS-28 scores among patients in the ICU and patients in the ward (t = 25.59, p = 0.0001; t = 21.48, p = 0.0001) respectively. A significant correlation was found between the data collected from a sample of patients by the researcher and the expert assistant researcher with an intra-class correlation coefficient of 0.99 and a p-value of 0.0001. Conclusions: The findings support validity and reliability of TISS-28 hence its feasibility for use in South African ICUs. Recommendations for nursing education, practice, management and research are proposed.

A aplicação de instrumentos que mensuram carga de trabalho de enfermagem prospectivamente é de fundamental interesse, pois a pontuação obtida de forma retrospectiva não reflete em tempo real a carga de trabalho de enfermagem necessária para atender as demandas de cuidados dos pacientes nas horas subseqüentes. Este estudo teve como objetivos analisar o desempenho do NAS para a medida prospectiva da carga de trabalho de enfermagem em UTI e comparar as medidas entre o NAS de aplicação prospectiva e retrospectiva. Trata-se de um estudo metodológico desenvolvido em uma UTI geral pertencente a um hospital privado do município de São Paulo. A amostra foi constituída por 104 pacientes com idade igual ou superior a 18 anos, admitidos na UTI e que permaneceram, no mínimo, 24 horas no primeiro dia de internação, no período de setembro a novembro de 2006. Foram coletados dados demográficos e de internação, SAPS II, LODS e o NAS de aplicação prospectiva e retrospectiva. Para comparar as médias do NAS e verificar a correlação e homogeneidade entre o NAS prospectivo e retrospectivo utilizou-se o teste t-student e os Coeficientes de Pearson e de Correlação Intraclasse (ICC). Para avaliar a concordância entre cada item do NAS nas duas formas de aplicação utilizou-se o índice Kappa. Prevaleceram pacientes do sexo masculino (55,8%), provenientes do pronto-socorro (35,6%) e que internaram por razões clínicas (76,0%). A pontuação média SAPS II e LODS foram de 31,8 e 2,9 pontos, respectivamente, com mortalidade encontrada de 17,3%. Houve diferença estatisticamente significativa (p< 0,001) entre as médias do NAS prospectivo e retrospectivo e correlação moderada (Pearson 0,65; ICC 0,623) entre as duas medidas. Observou-se que do total de 32 itens do instrumento, em 11 não foi possível aplicar o índice Kappa devido à elevada porcentagem de concordância em uma única categoria de respostas e que, dos 21 em que a análise foi possível, 10 itens (47,6%) apresentaram concordância igual ou maior do que moderada, sendo apenas um item nessa última classificação (1a). Quanto a concordância por itens, verificou-se que aqueles com concordância muito forte (itens 5, 10, 12, 14 e 20) e forte (9, 17, 18 e 21), referiam-se a dados mais objetivos, de fácil avaliação e monitoramento pelos profissionais de enfermagem e que geralmente não apresentam discordâncias quanto ao tipo de cuidado que deve ser prestado. Os itens com divisão em sub-itens (a, b e c) apresentaram as concordâncias mais fracas, quer devido às avaliações subjetivas das coletadoras e enfermeiros, quer pela ausência de registros com informações fidedignas. Conclui-se que o NAS prospectivo pode ser usado quando se deseja projetar os cuidados de enfermagem a serem prestados, sobretudo, quando se tem a intenção de distribuir os profissionais de enfermagem necessários para prestar assistência de qualidade no decorrer de um período de trabalho. No entanto, existe a necessidade de uma efetiva uniformização entre os enfermeiros da UTI para que esta projeção seja fidedigna / The using of measuring instruments of nursing workload prospectively is the fundamental interest, therefore the obtained pointing in retrospective way don´t show in real time nursing workload necessary to attend the requirements of patients care on the subsequent hours. The aims of this study were analysis NAS performing for prospective measuring of nursing workload in ICU and comparing them among NAS of prospective and retrospective application. It is methodological study developed in ICU of a private hospital of São Paulo city. The sample was constituted by 104 patients with ages equal or superior 18 years old, admitted in ICU that stayed there at least 24 hours in the first day of internation, during the period of September until November 2006. It has been collected demographic and internation data, SAP II, LODS and NAS of prospective and retrospective application. To compare the average of NAS and check the correlation and homogeneity between NAS retrospective and prospective had been used t-student test, Pearson Coefficients and Intraclass Correlation (ICC). To valuate the concordance among each item of NAS on the two ways of application had been used Kappa index. Patients of masculine sex were superior (55,8%), coming from first-aid clinic (35,6%) and they were admitted for clinical reasons (76,0%). The average pointing SAPSII and LODS were 31,8 and 2,9 points, respectively, with mortality of 17,3%. There was significative statistical difference (p< 0,001) between NAS average prospective and retrospective and moderate correlation (Pearson 0,65; ICC 0,623) between the measures. It had been observed that of the total 32 items of the instrument, at 11 weren’t possible to apply Kappa index due high percentage of concordance on a unique category of answers and that among 21 the analysis was possible, 10 items (47,6%) showed concordance equal or bigger than moderated, it was being only one item on the last classification (1a). In relation to the concordance for items, it was checked that some with high concordance (items 5, 10, 12, 14, and 20) and strong (9, 17, 18 and 21) they were referring to more objective data, with easy valuation and checking of nursery professionals and that generally don´t shown discordances as the type of caring that should be done. The items with sub-items (a, b and c) shown very weak concordance, or because of the subjective evaluation of searchers and nurses. Concluding that prospective NAS can be used when we wish to plan nursing care to will be afford, mainly, when we have the intention of distributing necessary nursing professional to afford assistance of quality during work schedule. However, there is the necessity of an effective uniformation among the ICU nursery for this projection become reliable

Este estudo teve por finalidade a construção e validação de um instrumento para classificação de pacientes baseado nas necessidades individualizadas de cuidado de enfermagem. Para compor o instrumento foram considerados 13 indicadores críticos : Estado Mental e Nível de Consciência, Oxigenação, Sinais Vitais, Nutrição e Hidratação, Motilidade, Locomoção, Cuidado Corporal, Eliminações, Terapêutica, Educação à Saúde, Comportamento, Comunicação e Integridade Cutâneo-Mucosa. Cada um desses indicadores possui gradação de 1 a 5, apontando a intensidade crescente da complexidade assistencial. O paciente é classificado em todos os indicadores em um dos 5 níveis, na opção que melhor descreva a sua situação. Para validação do conteúdo foi aplicada a Técnica Delphi em 2 fases. Participaram como juízes 15 profissionais da área de enfermagem que atuam junto a instituições de assistência ou vinculados a Hospital Escola na cidade de São José do Rio Preto. Os resultados obtidos mostraram concordância dos juízes quanto a : manutenção dos 13 indicadores críticos no instrumento; pertinência e clareza do conteúdo dos indicadores críticos e a existência de nível de complexidade assistencial crescente / This study had in its aim the construction and the validation of a patient classification instrument which has been based on the patient’s individual necessities that require the nursing care. It was considered in the instrument 13 critical indicators : Mental State and Level of Conciousness, Breathing, Vital Signs, Nutrition and Hydration, Movement, Locomotion, Corporeal Hygiene, Eliminations, Therapy, Health Teaching, Behavior, Communication and Skin Integrety. Each one of these indicators has a 1 to 5 gradation denoting an increasing level in the nursing care complexity. The patient is classified in all the indicators in one of the five levels, in the option that better describes his/her situation. The content validation of the instrument was done by the Delphi Tecnique aplication through 2 rounds. A team of 15 nursing experts who attend pacients or teach in the Medical School in São José do Rio Preto were participants in this research. The obtained results have showed the experts’ agreement concerned to: the maintenance of the 13 critical indicators in the instrument; property and intelligibility of the critical indicator contents and the presence of an increasing level in the nursing care complexity

Trata-se de um estudo com abordagem quantitativa, de corte transversal e retrospectivo, que teve como objetivo analisar a carga de trabalho de enfermagem e os fatores associados a ela, no primeiro dia de internação de pacientes na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva (UTI). Os dados foram extraídos de um banco de dados que reuniu informações de 5 UTI(s) de dois hospitais privados, de nível terciário, de grande e médio porte, no município de São Paulo. A amostra foi constituída por 214 pacientes adultos, admitidos nas instituições nos meses de abril de 2002 e outubro de 2004, respectivamente, e que permaneceram na UTI por um período mínimo de 24 horas. Os dados foram coletados dos prontuários por meio de três instrumentos: ficha de levantamento de dados que incluiu informações demográficas e clínicas; índice NAS (Nursing Activities Score), para medir a carga de trabalho de enfermagem e SAPS II (Simplified Acute Physiology Score II), aplicado para medir a gravidade dos pacientes. Esses dados foram armazenados e analisados utilizando o programa SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) versão 12.0 (SPSS, 2002), estabelecendo-se as análises descritivas e inferenciais pertinentes ao estudo. A média do escore total do NAS foi de 69,9% e mediana de 68,0%. Verificou-se, segundo a mediana, que 109 (50,9%) indivíduos exigiram alta carga de trabalho de enfermagem e 105 (49,1%) baixa carga. Comparando as médias da carga de trabalho de enfermagem segundo as variáveis demográficas e clínicas, observou-se que as únicas estatisticamente significativas foram a condição de saída e o tempo de permanência na UTI. Ao serem comparadas com os grupos alta e baixa carga de trabalho de enfermagem, constatou-se associação apenas entre a variável tempo de permanência. Conclui-se, portanto, que a gravidade, a idade do paciente e o tipo de tratamento não foram fatores associados à demanda de trabalho de enfermagem, nas primeiras 24 horas na UTI. Os resultados indicam a necessidade de investigar outras variáveis, entre elas o grau de dependência de enfermagem do paciente em estado crítico. / This is a qualitative and retrospective study with transversal cut that aimed both to analyse the nursing workload on the first day of admission in the Intensive Care Unite (ICU) and the factors related to it. The data were taken from a database that gathered information from 5 ICUs from two private hospitals, of a terciary level, large and medium-sized in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. The sample was constituted of 214 adult patients, admitted from April 2002 to October 2004, in the large and medium-sized hospitals respectively. They remained in the ICU for at least 24 hours. The data were collected from their recordings through three instruments: A data form which brings information such as demographic, clinical and instruments, NAS (Nursing Activities Score) and SAPS II (Simplified Acute Physiology Score II) respectively applied in order to measure the nursing workload and patients severity. The data were stored and analysed through the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) program, version 12.0 (SPSS, 2002). It was established descriptive and inferential analysis of the study. NAS total score average was 69.9% and the median was 68.0%. According to the median, it was verified that 109 (50.9%) individuals had high nusing workload and 105 (49.1%) low load.. When the nursing workload averages were compared according to clinical and demographic variables, it was observed that the only statistically significative ones were discharge conditions and time spent in the ICU. When compared to the groups with high and low nursing workload, the relation was only observed between the variable time spent in the ICU. Therefore, it was concluded that severity of illness, patient age and kind of treatment were not factores related to nursing workload in the first 24 hours in the ICU. Based on these results, further investigations on other variables considering dependency level of the critical patient are necessary.