Le transport de composés à travers les membranes biologiques est crucial pour la physiologie des cellules eucaryotes. Cependant la fonction de nombreux transporteurs putatifs reste inconnue. C’est notamment le cas de nombreux transporteurs intracellulaires exportant les catabolites du lysosome. Le transporteur lysosomal de cystine, baptisé cystinosine, se caractérise par la présence d’un motif dupliqué appelé " boucle PQ ". Sa dysfonction entraîne une maladie lysosomale, la cystinose, caractérisée par l'accumulation de cystine dans les lysosomes. Les protéines possédant un motif PQ sont retrouvées plus souvent dans les cellules eucaryotes et, à l'exception de la cystinosine, leur fonction reste inconnue. Dans cette thèse, nous démontrons qu'une autre protéine à motif PQ, PQLC2 est le transporteur responsable de l'efflux lysosomal des acides aminés cationiques et qu'il est impliqué dans le traitement de la cystinose.L'hypothèse de départ était basée, d'une part, par sur des prédictions par analyse protéomique de la localisation lysosomale de PQLC2 et, d'autre part, sur des résultats chez S.cerevisiae impliquant les orthologues putatifs de PQLC2, situés à la membrane de la vacuole, dans l'homéostasie des acides aminés cationiques. En utilisant une approche consistant à délocaliser PQLC2 à la membrane plasmique et à acidifier le pH extracellulaire pour mimer la lumière acide du lysosome, nous avons pu, par mesure d'accumulation intracellulaire de composés radiomarqués et par mesure électrophysiologique sur cellule entière, faire la preuve du transport sélectif, actif à bas pH et de faible affinité des acides aminés cationiques par PQLC2. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons mis en évidence l'implication de ce transporteur dans l'efflux lysosomal du produit de réaction entre la cystine accumulée dans les lysosomes de cellules de patients cystinotiques et le principe actif (cystéamine) du traitement pharmacologique de la cystinose.Enfin, dans une dernière partie, nous avons effectué une analyse bioinformatique préliminaire des protéines à motif PQ qui exploitait la pseudo-symétrie de ces protéines pour identifier des résidus potentiellement impliqués dans l'activité de transport. / Transport of solutes across biological membranes is crucial to eukaryotic cell physiology. However, the function of many putative transporters remains unknown, such as the proteins responsible for lysosomal export of metabolites. Cystinosin, the lysosomal cystine exporter defective in cystinosis, is characterized by a duplicated motif termed the PQ loop. PQ-loop proteins are more frequent in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes, and, except for cystinosin, their molecular function remains unknown. Here we show that another PQ-loop protein, PQLC2, is a lysosomal transporter for cationic amino acids and that it is required for the treatment of cystinosis. The hypothesis that PQLC2 is a lysosomal metabolite transporter was based on a proteomic study predicting that PQLC2 is located at the lysosomal membrane and on a genetic study that linked putative yeast orthologues with cationic amino acid homeostasis. Using an approach that consisted in misrouting PQLC2 to the plasma membrane of frog oocytes and in acidifying the extracellular medium to mimic the acidic lysosomal lumen, we showed an accumulation of radiolabelled cationic amino acids into mRNA-injected oocytes and an electrogenic, inward current due to a selective, pH-dependent, low-affinity transport of cationic amino acids by PQLC2. Moreoever, we showed that PQLC2 exports a key chemical intermediate (cysteamine-cysteine mixed disulfide) from cystinotic lysosomes treated with the aminothiol drug cysteamine, thus explaining the mechanism underlying the current drug therapy of cystinosis. Finally, in a last chapter, we performed a preliminary bioinformatic study of the family of PQ-loop proteins that took advantage of the pseudo-symmetric structure of these proteins to identify residues potentially important for the transport activity.

The teratogenic potential of commercial formulations of atrazine (40.8%) and 2,4-D was evaluated using FETAX (frog embryo teratogenic assay--Xenopus). Because these herbicides have been detected in ground and surface water, this study was designed to determine the adverse effects in buffer and natural water for both herbicides. All treatments showed a significant concentration-response effect on exposed embryos, except for the 2,4-D natural water sample. Atrazine (solubility of the commercial formula used 70 mg/L at 20 degrees C), compared to 2,4-D (solubility = 311 mg/L at pH = 1 and 25 degrees C), had a significantly greater teratogenic effect in both the buffer (atrazine EC50 = 33 mg/L, LC50 = 100 mg/L, TI = 3.03; 2,4-D EC50 = 245 mg/L, LC50 = 254 mg/L, TI = 1.04) and natural water samples (atrazine EC50 < 8 mg/L, LC50 = 126 mg/L; 2,4-D EC50 and LC50 > 270 mg/L). The 2,4-D EC50 and LC50 values for the buffer were similar at 245 mg/L and 254 mg/L. These similar values and the teratogenic index (TI) of 1.04 suggested that 2,4-D was more embryotoxic than teratogenic to frog embryos at high concentrations. Atrazine in natural water demonstrated a significantly greater EC50 (100% abnormality at 8 mg/L, the lowest test concentration) to frog embryos than the buffer experiment (EC50 = 33 mg/L). The extrapolated lowest observable adverse effect concentration (LOAEC) for the natural water experiment was 1.1 mg/L. These results suggest that atrazine toxicity is enhanced by the synergistic or additive effects of some component of the water or atrazine was already present in the sample. In contrast to atrazine, 2,4-D was less toxic in natural water than buffer. These results suggest that both atrazine and 2,4-D pose little threat, since their embryotoxicity and teratogenicity to frog embryos occur at high concentrations approaching their maximum solubility levels in water.

Au cours de ma thèse, mes projets de recherche ont visé à mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires contrôlant la prolifération et la spécification des cellules progénitrices dans la rétine du xénope à travers trois projets principaux. Le réseau de régulation qui contrôle la spécification des cellules progénitrices vers les sous-types neuronaux est à ce jour très peu connu. C’est dans ce contexte que j’ai étudié le rôle du facteur de transcription à domaine bHLH, Ascl1, dans la détermination des sous-types rétiniens au cours du développement. Par des approches in vivo de gain et perte de fonction d’Ascl1, des expériences d’épistasie et la recherche de ses cibles transcriptionnelles, j’ai pu mettre en évidence qu’Ascl1 (i) est impliqué dans la genèse des neurones GABAergiques rétiniens, (ii) qu’il est épistatique sur des facteurs glutamatergiques tels que Neurog2, NeuroD1 ou Atoh7, (iii) que son activité GABAergique est conférée par son domaine basique de liaison à l’ADN et (iv) que cette activité implique la régulation directe du facteur de transcription Ptf1a. Ces données ajoutent donc une nouvelle pièce au réseau transcriptionnel gouvernant la spécification des sous-types GABAergiques au cours du développement de la rétine. La mise en place correcte des types et sous-types cellulaires de la rétine nécessite une coordination avec le moment de sortie du cycle cellulaire des progéniteurs rétiniens. Dans ce contexte, j’ai contribué à l’avancée d’un projet visant à étudier le réseau de signalisation contrôlant la prolifération des précurseurs de la rétine. Par des approches in vivo, génétiques et pharmacologiques, cette étude a montré que les voies Wnt et Hedgehog s’antagonisent pour réguler l’activité proliférative des cellules souches et progénitrices rétiniennes. Nos données préliminaires suggèrent que ces voies agissent de façon opposée à la fois sur la sortie et sur la cinétique du cycle cellulaire. Ce travail nous a conduit à proposer un modèle selon lequel ces voies Wnt et Hedgehog réguleraient la balance entre prolifération et différenciation dans la rétine post-embryonnaire. Enfin, dans le but d’élargir nos connaissances sur les réseaux de signalisation et les réseaux transcriptionnels impliqués dans le contrôle de la prolifération et de la détermination cellulaire dans la rétine, j’ai également contribué à la recherche de nouveaux marqueurs spécifiques des différentes populations cellulaires rétiniennes au travers d’un crible à grande échelle par hybridation in situ. De nombreux gènes spécifiquement exprimés dans les cellules souches ou les cellules progénitrices constituent des gènes candidats pour de futures approches fonctionnelles. / My thesis research work aimed to better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying proliferation and specification of retinal progenitors in Xenopus through three main projects. As the mechanisms governing specification of retinal progenitors towards the different neuronal subtypes are still poorly understood, I focused my work on the role of Ascl1, a bHLH transcription factor, in cell-subtype determination during retinogenesis. Using in vivo gain- and loss-of-function experiments, I have investigated Ascl1’s epistatic relationships with other bHLH factors and identified its transcriptional targets. My results indicate that Ascl1 (i) is implicated in the genesis of retinal GABAergic neurons (ii) is epistatic to glutamatergic factors such as Neurog2, NeuroD1 and Atoh7 (iii) that its basic DNA-biding domain is sufficient for its GABAergic-inducing activity (iv) and that this activity involves a direct regulation of the Ptf1a transcription factor. The correct order of neural cell types and subtypes formation is tightly coordinated with the timing of cell-cycle exit of retinal progenitors. Ongoing work in the laboratory, to which I have contributed, was therefore investigating the role of signaling pathways controlling retinal precursor proliferation in this process. Using in vivo genetic and pharmacological tools, we have shown that an antagonistic cross-regulation between Wnt and Hedgehog signaling governs stem cell and progenitor proliferation in post-embryonic retina. Preliminary data shows that Wnt and Hedgehog have opposite effects on both cell cycle exit and kinetics and may therefore regulate the proliferation/differentiation balance in the post-embryonic retina. Lastly, in order to broaden our knowledge on the transcriptional and signaling networks which govern proliferation and cell fate determination in the retina, I have participated in a large scale screen by in situ hybridization aiming to identify new molecular markers of different retinal cell population. Many genes that are exclusively expressed in retinal stem cells or progenitors are promising candidates for future functional studies.

Surfactants are one of the more ubiquitous contaminants in aquatic systems. Their importance as toxic components of pesticide formulations has, however, been largely overlooked. Amphibians particularly, as inhabitants of shallow, temporary and often lentic aquatic environments may be at risk from exposure to these chemicals when they enter aquatic systems. This thesis presents data on the toxicity of surfactants to amphibians. Several experimental exposures were conducted with embryo-larval, tadpole and adult developmental stages of the Australian species- Crinia insignifera, Helcioporus eyrei, Limnodynastes dorsalis and Litoria moorei and the exotic species- Bufo marinus and Xenopus laevis. Animals were variously exposed to glyphosate formulations that contain a high proportion of nonionic surfactants, or commercial pesticide wetting agents (alcohol alkoxylate and nonylphenol ethoxylate (NPE) surfactants). Feeding stage tadpoles of C.insignifera, H. eyrei, L. dorsalis and L. moorei were exposed to three commercial glyphosate formulations, glyphosate isopropylamine and glyphosate acid in static-renewal acute toxicity tests. The 48-h LC50 values for Roundup Herbicide (MON 2139) tested against tadpoles of C. insignifera, H. eyrei, L. dorsalis and L. moorei ranged between 8.1 and 32.2 mg/L (2.9 and 11.6 mg/L glyphosate acid equivalent (ae)), while the 48-h LC50 values for Roundup Herbicide tested against adult and newly metamorphosed C. insignifera ranged from 137-144 mg/L (49.4-51.8 mg/L ae). / Touchdown Herbicide (4 LC-E) tested against tadpoles of C. insignifera, H. eyrei, L. dorsalis and L. moorei was slightly less toxic than Roundup with 48-h LC50 values ranging between 27.3 and 48.7 mg/L (9.0 and 16.1 mg/L ae). Roundup Biactive (MON 77920) was practically non-toxic to tadpoles of the same four species producing 48-h LC50 values of 911 mg/L (328 mg/L ae) for L. moorei and >1000 mg/L (>360 mg/L ae) for C. insignifera, H. eyrei and L. dorsalis. Glyphosate isopropylamine was practically non-toxic producing no mortality amongst tadpoles of any of the four species over 48 h, at concentrations between 503 and 684 mg/L (343 and 466 mg/L ae). The toxicity of technical grade glyphosate acid (48-h LC50, 81.2-121 mg/L) is likely to be due to acid intolerance. Feeding stage tadpoles of B. marinus, X laevis, C. insignifera, H.eyrei, L. dorsalis and L. moorei were exposed to NPE and alcohol alkoxylate in static renewal acute toxicity tests. All species exhibited non-specific narcosis following exposure to both these surfactants. The 48-h EC50 values for NPE ranged between 1.1 mg/L (mild narcosis) and 12.1 mg/L (full narcosis). The 48-h EC50 values for alcohol alkoxylate ranged between 5.3 mg/L (mild narcosis) and 25.4 mg/L (full narcosis). Xenopus laevis was the most sensitive species tested. The sensitivity of the other five species was size dependent with larger species displaying greater tolerance. Replicate acute toxicity tests with B. marinus exposed to NPE at 30 degrees celsius over 96 hours indicated that the narcotic effects were not particularly time dependant. / The mean 24, 48, 72 and 96-h EC50 (mild narcosis) were 3.6, 3.7, 3.5 and 3.5 mg/L respectively. The mean 24, 48, 72, and 96-h EC50 (full narcosis) values were 4.0, 4.1, 4.2 and 4.0 respectively. Acute toxicity tests with B. marinus exposed to NPE at 30 degrees celsius under conditions of low dissolved oxygen (0.8-2.3 mg/L) produced a two to threefold increase in toxicity. The 12-h EC50 values ranged from 1.4 to 2.2 mg/L. The embryotoxicity of NPE was determined in X. laevis, L. adelaidensis and C. insignifera using a Frog Embryo Teratogenesis assay-Xenopus (FETAX). The 96-h LC50, EC50 and MCIG (LOEC) values for X. laevis were 3.9 to 5.4 mg/L, 2.8 to 4.6 mg/L and 1.0 to 3.0 mg/L respectively. The 140-h LC50, ECSO and MCIG values for L. adelaidensis were 9.2 mg/L, 8.8 mg/L and 5.1 to 6.0 ing/L respectively. The 134-h LC50, EC50 and MCIG values for C. insignifera were 6.4 mg/L, 4.5 mg/L and 4.0 mg/L respectively. Teratogenicity indices for the three species ranged between 1.0 and 1.6 indicating either no or low teratogenicity. Xenopus laevis was the more sensitive of the three species and the only species that displayed indisputable terata. The acute toxicity data indicated that the amphibian species tested were of similar sensitivity to fish and some invertebrates. Developmental retardation and oestrogenic effects following exposure to nonylphenol ethoxylate were indicated by sublethal toxicity tests. Crinia insignifera embryos were exposed during early embryogenesis to sublethal concentrations of NPE. / Exposure to NPE did not affect either weight nor size (snout-vent length) at metamorphosis. Exposure to 5.0mg/L NPE resulted in a significant delay in the time required to reach metamorphosis. Also, exposure to 3.0 mg/L NPE for the first 6 days of embryonic development or exposure to 5.0 mg/L NPE from day 2 to day 6 resulted in a statistically significant predominance in the female phenotype amongst metamorphosing froglets. Exposure for the first five days to 1.5 ing/L or 3.0 mg/L NPE had no effect on sex ratio. The results indicated that exposure to NPEs has endocrine disruptive effects in this species and that a narrow window of susceptibility exists for the induction of predominantly female phenotype. This study has also followed the degradation of a mixture of NPE oligomers and the concomitant formation of individual oligomers in static die-away tests with and without illumination in freshwater. Over 33 days in darkness there was a progressive and complete loss of long chain oligomers (NPEO(subscript)8-17), transient increases and subsequent loss of short to medium chain oligomers (NPE0(subscript)4-7), and large persistent increases (approximately 1000%) in short chain oligomers (NPE0(subscript)1-3). In the presence of illumination, biodegradation was retarded and heterotrophic bacterial proliferation was inhibited. After 33 days there was complete loss of long chain oligomers (NPE0(subscript)9-17), incomplete loss of medium chain oligomers (NPE0(subscript)6.8) and increases in short chain oligomers (NPE0(subscript)1-5). / This thesis discusses the importance of persistent metabolites of NPE degradation as it pertains to the habitat, developmental time frame and ecology of amphibians. Degradation of NPE is likely to occur over a time frame that is longer than that required for complete embryogenesis and metamorphosis of many species of amphibians, and may easily encompass those critical stages of development during which oestrogenic metabolites can affect development.

Numerous initiatives to improve our understanding of cancer biology have been lunched in different laboratories that aim to describe the interactome and gene-expression profile in different tumour cell line. It is now clear that the different strategies of cell migration observed in cancer are reminiscent of the different migratory strategies observed during embryo development. These similarities suggest that developmental program that has to be kept off after embryogenesis may be induced by spontaneous genetics modifications that produce tumour cells. In this study we went inside the genetic network/profile that controls how neural crest cells eventually switch on the migration program and how they are able to arise into different lines with the propose of getting new ideas on how to prevent dissemination of tumour cells or how to treat advanced tumour that have already spread. Neural progenitors of the dorsal neural tube that acquire the expression of specific neural crest determinants, delaminate from the neural tube and follow precise migratory pathways, to terminally differentiate into the various neural crest derivatives. Here we developed a novel resource for lineage trace and isolation of neural crest cells that allowed for a genome-wide expression screen in pre-migratory and migratory neural crest progenitors. We efficiently identified previously known neural crest specific genes. Expression profiling revealed new neural crest genes belonging to a wide range of cellular functions, with high representation of genes associated to cell motion. Additionally, we identified chick genes for which the human orthologues and/or paralogues are associated to Neuroblastoma formation. In my thesis we identified new genes specifically expressed in the developing neural crest, and proposed a revised genomic signature for the normal neural crest cells. Furthermore, mutations on some of these genes are markers for Neuroblastoma tumour formation. Thus we propose this as a valid screen to identify candidates genes that contribute to the characterization of the Neuroblastoma cancer stem cells, and thus to the identification of specific targets to design new therapeutic strategies. Getting in more detail into this genetic network, Wnt canonical signalling response has to been shown to be a key event in both cancer and neural crest cell development. Traditionally Wnt canonical pathway has been involved in neural crest induction process, but here we demonstrated that it is also critical for the onset migration of the neural crest cell. In fact, high levels of Wnt canonical activity prevents neural crest cell to delaminate and only through the inhibition of this activity mediate by dapper protein, neural crest cells can undergo into their normal migration pathways. If this process has an implication in cancer is still unknown, but Dapper expression proteins have been already associated to different types of cancer.

Chez les vertébrés, le battement coordonné des cils motiles présents par centaines à la surface apicale des cellules multiciliées (MCC) est requis pour propulser directionnellement les fluides biologiques à l’intérieur de certains organes (voies respiratoires, ventricules cérébraux, trompes utérines ou certaines structures embryonnaires). De nombreuses pathologies humaines sont associées à des défauts ciliaires ou à une perte des MCC (dyskinésies ciliaires, mucoviscidose, asthme,...). Dans ce contexte, mon travail de thèse a consisté à élucider les mécanismes complexes contrôlant la différenciation des MCC et donc la formation des cils motiles (multiciliogenèse). Par des approches de génomiques fonctionnelles à partir de deux modèles d’épithéliums multiciliés évolutivement éloignés (épithélium respiratoire humain et épiderme d’embryon de Xénope) nous avons identifié la famille des microARN (petits ARN non-codants régulateurs de l’expression génique) miR-449 comme majoritairement exprimée dans les MCC. Nous avons montré que miR-449 contrôle la multiciliogenèse i) en bloquant le cycle cellulaire, ii) en réprimant directement la voie de signalisation Notch et iii) en inhibant l’expression de la petite GTPase R-Ras. Enfin, nos travaux montrent que l’ensemble de ces mécanismes est conservé chez les vertébrés. En conclusion, miR-449 est un nouveau régulateur clé de la multiciliogenèse conservé au cours de l’évolution. Nos résultats pourraient ouvrir la voie à de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques utilisant des petits ARN régulateurs dans le traitement de certaines pathologies associées à des défauts ciliaires. / In vertebrates, the coordinated beating of hundreds of motile cilia present at the apical surface of multiciliated cells (MCC) is required for propel directionally flow of biological fluids inside some organs (airways, cerebral ventricles, fallopian tubes or some embryonic structures). Many human diseases are associated with ciliary defects or loss of MCC (ciliary dyskinesia, cystic fibrosis, asthma ...). In this context, my thesis has sought to elucidate the complex mechanisms that control the differentiation of MCC and thus the formation of motile cilia (multiciliogenesis). By functional genomic approaches from two evolutionarily distant models of multiciliated epithelia (human respiratory epithelium and epidermis of Xenopus embryo) we identified the miR-449 family of microRNAs (small non-coding RNAs regulating gene expression) as mainly expressed in MCC. Then, we showed that miR-449 controlled multiciliogenesis by i) blocking the cell cycle ii) directly suppressing the Notch pathway and iii) by inhibiting the expression of the small GTPase R-Ras. Finally, we have demonstrated that all these mechanisms were conserved in vertebrates. In conclusion, miR-449 is a new key and conserved regulator of multiciliogenesis. Our findings could pave the way for new therapeutic strategies using small regulatory RNAs in the treatment of several diseases associated with ciliary defects.

Le but des recherches du laboratoire de génétique du développement est de mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires qui contrôlent le développement neural des vertébrés. C’est la raison pour la quelle, j’ai identifié deux EST (BC071005 et BC077938) spécifiques de l’expression génique chez le Xenopus laevis. Sur base de la littérature, ces deux gènes présentent des profils d’expression intéressants, caractéristiques des gènes impliqués dans la neurogenèse.<p><p>Le premier clone d’ADNc code pour l’homologue du facteur de transcription Homez, contenant trois homéodomaines et deux motifs leucine zipper et dont la fonction est inconnue. Mes résultats ont montré que chez l’embryon de xénope au stade neurula, Homez est exprimé préférentiellement dans la plaque neurale, l’expression la plus forte étant détectée dans les domaines où les neurones primaires apparaissent. Plus tard, Homez est détecté dans le tube neural dans des cellules neurales postmitotiques en cours de différenciation. En accord avec ce profil d’expression, j’ai observé que Homez est régulé positivement par l’atténuation des signaux BMPs et par le facteur proneural Ngnr1 et négativement par la voie Notch. Bien que le facteur Homez ne soit pas suffisant pour induire une expression ectopique de marqueurs neuronaux dans l’embryon de xénope, j’ai pu montrer, en utilisant une approche de morpholino antisens, que celui-ci est requis en aval du facteur Ngnr1 pour la différenciation des précurseurs neuraux en neurones primaires. <p><p>Le deuxième clone code pour l’homologue du facteur CBFβ qui s’associe avec une famille de protéines CBFα1-3/Aml1-3/Runx1-3 pour former un complexe hétérodimérique liant l’ADN. Alors que chez la souris, les facteurs Runx1 et Runx3 jouent un rôle important dans la neurogenèse dans les ganglions spinaux et que chez le xénope, Runx1 est requis pour la formation des neurones Rohon-Beard, le rôle de CBFβ au cours du développement du système nerveux est actuellement mal connu. Mes résultats ont montré que chez l’embryon de xénope au stade neurula, CBFβ est coexprimé avec les facteurs Runx1-3 en bordure de la plaque neurale, mais de manière plus étendue et plus précoce. Comme attendu pour un marqueur de la bordure de la plaque neurale, j’ai observé que l’expression de CBFβ est régulée par les signaux BMP, Wnt, FGF et Notch. De manière intéressante, son expression est induite par les facteurs proneuraux alors que celle de Runx1 est inhibée. Des expériences de perte de fonction à l’aide de morpholinos antisens bloquant la traduction de CBFβ ont été réalisées. Ces expériences suggèrent que le facteur CBFβ est nécessaire à la mise en place de la CN et à la différenciation des neurones de Rohon-Beard. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La division cellulaire est essentielle pour la survie de chaque être vivant. Au cours de ce processus, les chromosomes de la cellule en division sont transmis aux deux cellules filles. La répartition des chromosomes est orchestrée par une structure cellulaire transitoire appelée fuseau mitotique (ou fuseau méiotique dans les cellules reproductrices). Le fuseau est composé de microtubules, de nombreuses protéines et de moteurs moléculaires, qui interagissent de manière complexe et précise aboutissant à l’organisation d’une structure bipolaire dynamique. Comme certains mécanismes moléculaires restent mal compris, nous avons choisi d'aborder la question de l'assemblage du fuseau méiotique dans des extraits d'oeufs de grenouille. Xenopus laevis est un organisme modèle car il est proche, d’un aspect phylogénétique, de l'homme, et il est particulièrement adapté à l’étude de la division cellulaire. Nous avons également utilisé une méthode in vitro (appelée spindle array ou puce à fuseaux) qui a été développée au sein du groupe de recherche auparavant, et qui offre certains avantages par rapport aux approches existantes. Une puce à fuseaux est composée de billes recouvertes de chromatine immobilisées selon des micro-motifs géométriques obtenus selon une technique d’impression par microcontact. L'assemblage des fuseaux méiotiques a été visualisé par microscopie confocale à fluorescence. Grâce à ces outils, nous avons, lors d’un premier projet, abordé le rôle de l’Augmin dans l'assemblage des fuseaux. L’Augmin est un complexe protéique récemment identifié grâce à son hypothétique rôle dans la nucléation de microtubules à partir de microtubules existants. Après déplétion de l’Augmin, nous avons constaté que la nucléation des microtubules était réduite et que les fuseaux avaient une morphologie anormale. De plus, ces derniers qui étaient essentiellement multipolaires sont progressivement devenus bipolaires grâce à une voie de nucléation des microtubules, découverte lors de notre étude, émanant des pôles acentrosomaux et qui est indépendante de l’Augmin. Nos résultats révèlent que l’Augmin est essentiel pour l’assemblage et la bipolarité du fuseau acentrosomal. Au cours d’un second projet, nous avons étudié les fonctions des chromokinésines kinésine-4 (Xklp1) et kinésine-10 (Xkid) dans l'assemblage des fuseaux et leurs mouvements. Xkid participe à la force d’éjection polaire nécessaire à la congression des chromosomes alors que Xklp1 contribue principalement à la régulation de la dynamique des microtubules. En étudiant l'assemblage de fuseaux dans des extraits après déplétion de Xkid, Xklp1 ou les deux, nous avons démontré que Xkid limite la dynamique des mouvements longitudinaux des fuseaux, contribue à la mise en place de la bipolarité et régule la longueur des fuseaux. Nous avons également quantifié la cinétique de nucléation des microtubules et confirmé le rôle de Xklp1 dans la régulation de la dynamique des microtubules. L’ensemble de nos travaux contribuent à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes d’assemblage du fuseau méiotique et confirme la pertinence de notre méthode pour l'étude de sa morphogenèse. / Cell division is essential for the survival of every living organism. During this process, the chromosomes of the dividing cell are transmitted to the two daughter cells. The partition of the chromosomes is orchestrated by a transient sub-cellular structure called the mitotic spindle (or meiotic spindle in gamete cells). The spindle is composed of microtubules, numerous proteins and molecular motors, which interact in an intricate and yet precise manner leading to a highly dynamic and complexstructure. As some molecular mechanisms remain elusive, we have chosen to address the question of meiotic spindle assembly in Xenopus egg extracts. Xenopus laevis is a model system that is evolutionary close to human, and suitable for cell division studies. We have combined this with an in vitro assay - spindle array - which we developed prior to this work, and which provides advantages over existing approaches. A spindle array is composed of chromatin-coated beads that are immobilized according to geometrical patterns obtained by microcontact printing. The assembly of meiotic spindles wasvisualized by time-lapse fluorescence confocal microscopy. Using these tools, we first addressed the role of augmin in the assembly of meiotic spindles. Augmin is a recently identified protein complex that has been hypothesized to induce microtubule nucleation from the side of preexisting microtubules. By depleting augmin, we found that microtubule nucleationwas reduced and that spindles were morphologically impaired. Spindles were predominantly multipolar but finally reached bipolarity as a result of a newly uncovered augmin-independent microtubule nucleation pathway from acentrosomal poles. Our results thus reveal that augmin is essential for the proper establishment of the microtubule scaffolding and the bipolarity ofacentrosomal spindles. Secondly, we investigated the functions of the chromokinesins kinesin-4 (Xklp1) and kinesin-10 (Xkid)in acentrosomal spindle architecture and motions. Xkid plays a major role in the polar ejection forces leading chromosome movements during congression while the main function of XKlp1 is to regulate microtubule dynamics. We studied spindle assembly in depleted extracts and we report that Xkid limits the dynamics of spindle longitudinal movements, contributes to spindle bipolarity and affects spindle length while XKlp1 controls the spindle microtubule mass. Altogether these findings contribute to a better understanding of meiotic spindle assembly and confirm the pertinence of our method to study spindle morphogenesis.

Microtransplantation of mammalian neurolemma into Xenopus laevis oocytes has been used to study ion channels in terms of their structure and function in the central nervous system. Use of microtransplanted neurolemma is advantageous in that tissue can be obtained from various sources, ion channels and receptors are present in their native configuration and they can be used to evaluate numerous channelpathies caused by environmental toxicants. Here we show that Xenopus oocytes injected with fragments of rat brain neurolemma successfully express functional native ion channels that are assembled in their own plasma membrane. Using a high throughput two electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) electrophysiological system, currents that were sensitive to tetrodotoxin (TTX), omega-conotoxin MVIIC, and tetraethylammonium (TEA) were detected, indicating the presence of multiple voltage-sensitive ion channels (voltage-sensitive sodium, calcium and potassium channels, respectively). In this current research, a “proof-of-principle” experiment was conducted where TTX-sensitive voltage-sensitive sodium channel (VSSC) currents were measured. VSSCs are a well-established site of action for 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) but not for its non-toxic metabolite 1,1-bis-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2-dichloroethene (DDE). A differential sensitivity of DDT versus DDE on TTX-sensitive sodium current in neurolemma-injected oocytes was determined. DDT elicited an increase in depolarization-dependent, TTX-sensitive sodium current while DDE had no significant effect. Additionally, DDT resulted in a slowing of sodium channel inactivation kinetics whereas DDE has no similar effect. These results are consistent with the findings obtained using heterologous expression of single isoforms of rat brain VSSCs by injecting cRNA into Xenopus oocytes. By demonstrating the classic structural activity relationship of DDT and DDE on mammalian voltage-gated sodium channels isolated in rat brain neurolemma, this study supports the use of automated high-throughput electrophysiology to study the effects of various environmental toxicants on multiple mammalian cellular targets. More importantly, using rat brain neurolemma ensures that the proteins of interest have been transcribed and have undergone all the necessary post-translational modifications before they were injected and expressed in the Xenopus oocytes which is not the case for traditional heterologous expression.

Clarifying the underlying spatio-temporal mechanisms that determine body pattern is important for detailed understanding of embryonic development. A crucial question of vertebrate embryogenesis remains: when and how are single blastomeres determined for differentiation that subsequently leads to body axes specification and the formation of different tissues and organs? The answer to this question will be beneficial for primary research as well as in the field of applied medicine. The main aim of the presented thesis was to study spatio-temporal molecular gradients of cell fate determinants during early embryonic development. The African clawed frog Xenopus laevis was used as a model organism because of their large size of oocytes and external embryonic development. Due to late activation of embryonic transcription, a crucial mechanism of early blastomeres determination is dependent on asymmetric localization of maternal factors within oocyte and their uneven distribution into single blastomeres during early cell division. Two main localization patterns were identified along the animal-vegetal axis of the mature Xenopus oocyte using qPCR tomography. The localization gradient with preference in either animal or vegetal hemisphere was found for maternal mRNA as well as miRNAs. Moreover, two vegetal...