Bibliography: leaves 280-288. / xix, 288, [36] leaves, [15] leaves of plates : ill. (some col.), maps ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / This study examines the medium sized sedimentary manganese deposit of Dounan, Yunnan Province of China, to determine the sedimentary environments controlling the distribution of ores and rocks, and to establish the relationships between ore mineralization and changes in the sedimentary environment. The thesis also aims to work out the sequence of events after the primary ore is formed, to determine which processes lead to secondary enrichment of the ore. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, 1994

On November 6, 1988, two strong earthquakes (Mw: 7.0 and 6.8) separated by about 13 minutes occurred in Yunnan Province, China. The aftershocks located by Kunming Telemetered Seismic Network form a lineament approximately 120 km long and 20 km wide with the long dimension oriented approximately N30°W. The epicenter of the first event lies about 30 km from the southern terminus of the aftershock zone while the epicenter of the second event is 60 km further to the northwest. Field investigations indicate that the surface fault ruptures associated with the first and second shock and a variety of ground deformations. We analyze teleseismic data recorded by the GDSN network to determine the rupture process of these two mainshocks (referred to as Ml and M2) and the two largest aftershocks (referred to as Al and A2). Inversion of long-period body waves gives the following centroid source parameters for Ml: strike 154°±4°, dip 86°±1°, slip 181°±1°, centroid depth shallower than 15 km (least-misfit centroid depth 12 km), and seismic moment 4.5-4.9 X 10²⁶ dyn cm (least-misfit seismic moment 4.6 X 10²⁶ dyn cm). The source time function, further constrained by broadband seismograms, indicates that the source duration for this event is 12 seconds. Due to signal interference with Ml, body wave inversion techniques cannot be applied to M2. The Rayleigh waves provide a better look at this event. In order to identify the energy contributions from the two events, group velocity analysis was performed on the surface wave trains. The energy from the individual events was then isolated based on their dispersion patterns. The amplitude spectra in the period range of 100 to 66 s were inverted for the source parameters. The inversion constrains the strike of M2 precisely (155°±3°), however, dip and slip angles were not well resolved by the inversion. Similar Rayleigh wave amplitude spectra and radiation patterns of Ml and M2, however, suggest that they had very similar mechanisms and centroid depths. On the average, the amplitude spectra of M2 are smaller than those of Ml by a factor of 2.2, indicating the seismic moment of M2 is 2.1 X 10²⁶ dyn cm. The two largest aftershocks, Al (Mw 6.1) and A2 (Mw 5.3), which occurred at the southern terminus of the aftershock zone, were analyzed by modeling teleseismic and strong ground motion data. Teleseismic body wave inversion gives source orientation of Al: strike 165°±2.5°, dip 90°±1.5°, slip 178°±0.5°, centroid depth shallower than 12 km (least-misfit centroid depth 7 km from broadband waveform inversion), and seismic moment 1.5-1.6 X 10²⁵ dyn cm. The inversion of A2 gives the source orientation and centroid depth very similar to those of Al. The seismic moment for this event is 1.3-1.6 X 10²⁴ dyn cm. Modeling of strong ground motion seismograms adds more constraints on centroid depths and source time functions of Al and A2. To minimize the effect of scattering caused by upper crustal heterogeneity, we confined our analysis to frequencies lower than 1 Hz. A crustal model, with a low velocity sedimentary layer, was found that predicts common features of observed strong ground motion seismograms for both events. Derived source orientation is consistent with that found from teleseismic body wave inversion. The centroid depths of Al and A2 were constrained to be between 4 and 12 km. A source duration of 7 s and 2 s was obtained for Al and A2, respectively. Derived rupture parameters of Ml and M2, aftershock distribution, field investigations, geological information and concepts of geometrical barriers and fault asperities, indicate that the preexisting fault intersections played the key role in rupture terminations and initiations. The 12 s source duration of Ml and about 60 km long zone of ground deformation along the strike suggest that Ml rupture was bilateral. The rupture initiated near a fault intersection and propagated to NNW and SSE along the strike. The SSE propagating rupture was terminated by a preexisting fault which intersects the ruptured fault 30 km to the south. The aftershock Al and A2 as well as a dense group of small aftershocks were associated with the termination of the SSE segment. The NNW propagating rupture was also terminated by a NE striking preexisting fault on which several of the largest aftershocks appear to have occurred. This NE striking fault right-laterally offsets the fault on which Ml and M2 occurred forming a geometrical barrier for the rupture. M2 presumably nucleated near this barrier and unilaterally ruptured about 25 km toward NNW where it was terminated by a well documented preexisting fault. / Graduation date: 1992

The Va nationality, despite its small population compared to other nationalities in China, has preserved most of its traditions largely due to limits placed by historical circumstances and geographical isolation. To non-Chinese anthropologists, the Va people still remain unknown, as there is little or no information about them in English or other Western languages. One of the purposes of this study is to narrow this gap by presenting an ethnographic description of the Va, giving them a place in the world anthropological studies. Since the Va have retained their own cultural characteristics, their societal development has been rather slow. Part of the reason for this slow development is inherent in the basic nature of Va culture, and part of it lies in misguided administrative policies and programs. This study proposes ways to help the Va make progress toward development without destroying their culture and examines several possible ways of modifying or revamping government policy and programs directed toward the Va people. / Graduation date: 1992

In Europe, fossil fruits and seeds of Rhodoleia (Hamamelidaceae) have been described from the Upper Cretaceous to the Miocene, whereas no fossil record of Rhodoleia has been reported in Asia, where the modern species occur. Herein, 21 fossil leaves identified as Rhodoleia tengchongensis sp. nov. are described from the Upper Pliocene of Tengchong County, Yunnan Province, Southwest China. The fossils exhibit elliptic lamina with entire margins, simple brochidodromous major secondary veins, mixed percurrent intercostal tertiary veins, and looped exterior tertiaries. The leaf cuticle is characterized by pentagonal or hexagonal cells, stellate multicellular trichomes, and paracytic stomata. The combination of leaf architecture and cuticular characteristics suggests that the fossil leaves should be classified into the genus Rhodoleia. The fossil distributions indicate that the genus Rhodoleia might originate from Central Europe, and that migrated to Asia prior to the Late Pliocene. Additionally, insect damage is investigated, and different types of damage, such as hole feeding, margin feeding, surface feeding, and galling, are observed on the thirteen fossil leaves. Based on the damage frequencies for the fossil and extant leaves, the specific feeding behavior of insects on Rhodoleia trees appears to have been established as early as the Late Pliocene. The high occurrence of Rhodoleia insect herbivory may attract the insect-foraging birds, thereby increasing the probability of pollination.

Continued increase in population and escalating environmental degradation have changed the priorities of agricultural development projects in developing and emerging countries towards both increasing production or productivity and improving sustainability. The long-term success of these development projects, especially in terms of improving sustainability, depends on how widely those improved practices which are shown to be effective in achieving the technical objectives, are adopted/adapted by farmers in the targeted region. In these terms, many projects in recent years may be considered to be relatively unsuccessful. This study aimed to investigate the factors contributing to the effectiveness of agricultural technology research and development projects in improving the sustainability of cropping systems in upland areas of China, together with the factors that might limit their effectiveness. This has involved both a review of recent projects carried out in the region and detailed monitoring and evaluation of one such project carried out in South West China – the SHASEA project. The SHASEA Project was implemented in Wang Jia catchment in Yunnan Province using holistic and multi-disciplinary approaches to address the twin objectives of increasing productivity of maize, wheat and soybean in a more sustainable and environmentally-friendly way. It introduced into the catchment a range of novel or modified cropping practices, which had been evaluated in plot studies over the preceding six years, together with biological and engineering measures designed to stabilise large scale soil movements in lateral gullies and the main stream. The SHASEA Project was successful in achieving its short-term scientific and technical objectives, but was too short to determine the level of adoption by farmers in the locality. The present study has used a range of approaches to evaluate the effectiveness of this Project, to monitor the biological, environmental and socio-economic impacts and investigate the perceptions of the farmers about the Project and the likelihood of their adoption of the recommended practices. Participatory approaches were used wherever possible, including detailed household surveys, PRA workshops and discussions with Key Informants. Field surveys and direct observations were also made, together with a limited economic analysis of the modified cropping practices introduced into the catchment. It was found that the farmers had different perceptions about the range of practices introduced into the catchment. Some were clearly preferred, such as contour cultivation and were likely to be adopted, while others were seen as inappropriate, such as straw mulching and intercropping, and were unlikely to be adopted. The benefits of an innovative, integrated cropping system, INCOPLAST, were not fully appreciated by the farmers. Other practices would only be adopted if the financial returns were favourable, such as the use of polythene mulch. Longer-term measures, such as tree planting schemes, were regarded favourably, but adoption would still depend on economic returns and related issues such as land security. An irrigation scheme was suggested by the farmers, but after installation it was not used extensively for the staple crops in the catchment. It was found that farmers planned to use the irrigation for higher value crops such as tobacco, after the end of the Project. It has been concluded that, despite the technical and scientific success of the Project, long-term adoption of many of the practices introduced into the catchment will be low, unless considerable incentives are used or much more effective dissemination techniques employed. It is considered that the outcomes would have improved considerably if participatory approaches had been used from the outset, to engage farmers more fully with the project, to ensure that the practices introduced were as appropriate as possible, to achieve greater ownership of the objectives and outcomes, leading to higher adoption rates. More emphasis should have been given to the dissemination of the outcomes at farmer level outside the catchment of study and there should have been more involvement with the regional policy makers and extension officials throughout the programme. Longer-term improvements in sustainability at the catchment level have not yet been demonstrated. These outcomes are discussed within the context of other agricultural projects carried out in South East Asia and other developing regions. Based on the outcomes and conclusions from this study, a series of recommendations are made which are presented as good practices for future agricultural development projects in South East Asia.

Sustainable agriculture in China is highly threatened by rapid urbanization, land degradation and high population pressure. Yunnan Province, south-west China, is 94% mountainous and lacks flat land. Food shortages and inappropriate cultivation have led to intensive cultivation of steep, marginal and fragile land and have increased soil erosion. To curb this situation and assist with poverty alleviation, it is crucial to develop more productive and sustainable cropping systems. An experiment was conducted on sloping areas from 1999 to 2001 in Wang Jia Catchment, Yunnan Province. The project aim was to evaluate the effects of five selected cultivation practices on maize productivity and soil properties. The treatments were: (1) downslope cultivation without mulch, (2) contour cultivation without mulch, (3) contour cultivation with polythene mulch, (4) contour cultivation with polythene and wheat straw mulch (Integrated Contour with Plastic and Straw Mulch Treatment, INCOPLAST) and (5) contour cultivation with polythene mulch and intercropping, wide and narrow row spacing, with soybean in wide row spacing. Crop growth parameters and soil physical properties were measured throughout the cropping seasons. Considering three years data, contour cultivation with polythene mulch generally increased soil temperature by a mean of 1-2°C. The polythene retained considerably more soil moisture during dry weather. However, during wet weather, polythene prevented rainfall directly falling on the soil, which led to less soil moisture content. The soil temperature and moisture regimes under polythene mulch made plants grow faster and canopies develop well, leading to higher final yields. The benefit of polythene was 33-54% more yield than downslope cultivation without mulch treatment, over three seasons. Contour cultivation plus polythene and straw mulch retained significantly higher soil moisture levels. The yield of this treatment in 1999 was ranked second, but in 2000 it had the highest yield and in 2001 it was also more effective than contour cultivation with polythene mulch treatment. Contour cultivation with polythene mulch and intercropping improved maize yield. The soybean harvest also contributed to net income, the crop had a similar function to straw mulch and increased N availability. Contour cultivation increased yields over the range 7.2-11.2% over three seasons compared with downslope cultivation, equivalent to ~500-1000 kg per hectare more grain produced. There were few clear trends in soil properties over the 1999-2001 period. However, N concentrations increased in the contour cultivation with polythene mulch and intercropping treatment. Both contour cultivation with polythene and straw mulch and contour cultivation with polythene mulch and intercropping gave apparent increases in total K, probably resulting from both decayed straw and decomposed soybean leaves. In terms of simple cost-benefit evaluation, downslope cultivation had the lowest input and output, while contour cultivation had a similar input, but a higher output. Contour cultivation with polythene had the highest net return. Contour cultivation with polythene and straw had a high output but did not give a higher net return than contour cultivation with polythene. Contour cultivation with polythene mulch and intercropping generally had the highest input and output and could give a higher net return than contour cultivation with polythene when the soybean harvest was successful, but over three years this treatment had the greatest risk from crop failure. It is recommended that replacing downslope cultivation with contour cultivation can increase crop yields and this simple action could contribute to the development of more sustainable cropping systems in Yunnan. Polythene mulch achieved higher maize yields but its environmental impact requires further study. It is considered that contour cultivation with polythene and straw mulch or soybean intercropping could contribute towards more productive and sustainable cropping systems where soil conservation is high priority. The technique could assist with long-term soil, water and nutrient conservation and improved crop productivity.

This study develops a basis for a land information system for the 40 ha subtropical highland catchment of Wang Jia, Yunnan Province, China. Information, including meteorology, geology, geomorphology, biology, pedology and crop productivity, was integrated using a geomorphopedological approach and expressed as maps using GIS. The developed protocol is proposed as a generic system, applicable to agricultural land evaluation in subtropical highland catchments. The results demonstrate that Wang Jia Catchment is relatively representative of the region, in terms of geomorphological features and land cover. Catchment soils, developed from residual, colluvial and alluvial materials of sandstone, shale and dolomite on different landscapes, were still young and strongly influenced by their geological parent material. Soils were normally slightly acidic to neutral. Soil fertility varied from poor to very fertile. Maize yield was significantly correlated with soil pH, total N, available N, P and K and thus the Soil Fertility Index. In 2002, maize yield was significantly correlated with manure and urea applications. There was considerable potential to increase maize yield with modified and innovative cropping practices in the catchment. Adopted primarily as a soil conservation practice, contour cultivation did not increase maize yield compared to downslope cultivation. Polythene mulch tended to increase maize yield in most years. These results largely accord with the results from controlled research plots in the same catchment. Analysis of intra-plot variations showed that soil samples from planting pits had higher total soil organic matter, total N, available N, available P and available K than inter-row samples, but with higher standard deviations. Most soil fertility parameters for inter-row samples were more similar to traditional random composite samples. These results suggest if composite samples were taken only from inter-rows, the results would have been similar, but the risk of sampling error would have been reduced. The land information system established in this study is suitable for designing, evaluating and monitoring sustainable agricultural practices central to soil conservation and crop yield improvement and thus contributing to decision-making for sustainable agricultural land management in this region.

中國經濟的快速成長導致電力需求的急劇增教。雖然現在主要仍是以煤炭的方式提供全國的電力，但中國政府也一直在尋找能有效降低環境污染的替代能源。因此“水力發電”在中國能源政策扮演的角色越來越重要－－這時，擁有巨大水資源的雲南省就變成了中國西南的關鍵提電者之一。過去二十年之內，已有企業與政府針對該省重點的水力設施進行大量投資。然而，發展水電雖然有助於生產大量的電，也帶來眾多環境和社會層面的影響。中國政府承認這些反面的影響，因此開始了設計一系列水電發展政策來預防可能的嚴重後果。 本論文分析中國中央政府和雲南地方政府共同制定的水電移民政策，以及新政策對當地執行過程所帶來的影響。基於多元的田野調查，本論文顯示地方政府如何落實中央政府制定的政策。雖然這幾年中國的水庫移民政策有大量的改進，但因為建設大水電站涉及層面廣，時間長，安置過程久，所以中央政府政策的彈性調整，造成當地政府執行過程對不同時間的移民外置帶來不對等的安置，因此印發水庫移民的方抗。 / Policy-making of dam-induced resettlement is a dynamic process that shows how group interests have been distributed and adjusted during different stages of water resource development in China. Since 1949, China’s political direction, economic system and its national strength have been in constant flux, reflecting in the policy towards land appropriation and resettlement induced by water conservancy and hydropower projects. The present study focuses on the changes that have taken place in the area of dam-induced resettlement policy after 2006 when the first regulations on resettlement caused by water resource and hydropower projects were amended. It shows how this policy change is perceived by villagers relocated in the course of dam construction, and addresses the question of why policy improvements have not led to desired results. The paper first addresses policy change in the area of dam-induced resettlement over the past six decades. In subsequent sections, I draw on findings gathered during my doctoral fieldwork to demonstrate how the recent improvement of resettlement regulations for water resource and hydropower projects at the central level are translated into implementation strategies at the local level in Yunnan. I show that while delegating the implementation of resettlement processes to the lowest level of the administrative hierarchy allows for innovative policy experimentation and flexible adaptation, the long timespan needed for the construction of large dam projects gives rise to uneven policy implementation and resistance on the side of resettled communities.