Until the 1960s, the Gokwe region of northwestern Zimbabwe was perceived as the wild, remote, and culturally backward domain of the "Shangwe" tribe. Since the introduction of small-holder cotton production in the 1960s, and the influx of immigrants from the south, it has been represented as a miracle of agrarian transformation, a frontier of commoditization, and more broadly, as an exemplar of the transition to modernity. In this thesis, I explore how alternative narratives of commoditization inform modes of state intervention, representations of ethnic difference, and forms of agrarian labour in Gokwe. Using my own ethnographic journey through Gokwe as a referent, I examine the different ways in which colonial maps, indigenous myths, and ritual exchanges variously locate relations of power, labour and identity in social space. Labour forms and commodity relations are continually remade as farmers, traders, ethnographers and administrators argue over the signs of modernity and its antitheses.

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This study focuses on rural livelihood diversification and improvement in dry districts of Zimbabwe during the period from 2000 to 2010. It establishes and documents livelihood activities and interventions in three semi-arid districts in Zimbabwe, analyses evidence for rural livelihood diversification and improvement and related challenges, and analyses institutional and policy issues that determine rural livelihood development in the politically charged period from 2000 to 2010. Rural livelihood diversification and improvement is not a recent phenomenon. For years, rural people have diversified their livelihoods for different economic reasons. Despite several studies on rural livelihoods in Zimbabwe, no similar studies have been done to determine the types of livelihood diversification that occur in a politically charged environment and whether they improve people‟s livelihoods. The study was guided by both the sustainable livelihoods framework and the actor oriented approach. Qualitative methodology was used for the overall data collection. Firstly data was collected „from the top‟ through in-depth interviews with officials from government institutions, non-governmental organisations and community leadership structures. Secondly data was collected „from the bottom up‟ through selected participatory methods in study areas. The overall study findings show that despite having increased livelihood interventions in all semi-arid areas, the politically fraught atmosphere constrained livelihood improvement and poverty remained. Although evidence for livelihood diversification is undisputed in the study, the extent to which it contributed to livelihood improvement was limited. The extended period of political constraint reversed some of the livelihood improvement gains recorded by external interventions. As most of the support was targeted at addressing the immediate food needs of the poor in semi-arid districts, this affected the number of long-term interventions targeted at sustainable livelihood development. The study found that the changing policies and institutional arrangements constrained and limited the potential of some of the livelihood strategies adopted during the period under study and as a result most livelihood activities were limited to survival strategies. The study shows that despite a decline in agricultural production during the period under study, it remained the major livelihood activity. Agricultural activities such as cotton and maize production and livestock rearing experienced a decline, but were partially revived through external support from both the government and nongovernmental organisations. Agriculture as a livelihood activity largely benefited from external interventions that rehabilitated irrigation infrastructure and the provision of agricultural inputs during the period. However, despite the dominance of agriculture as a livelihood activity in semi-arid areas non-farm livelihood activities, both locally initiated and externally fostered, played a significant role in supporting rural livelihoods. Poaching and wild fruit harvesting provided food for immediate consumption, whilst gold and diamond panning, wood carving and the commercialisation of non-timber forest products generated cash income for rural livelihoods. Non-farm external livelihood interventions identified resulted in a number of rural livelihood development models important for future rural development. These models were developed around the commercialisation of non-timber forest products for cash income generation, rural human capital development through vocational skills training and rural small livestock asset development. Human capital resulted in the development of rural industry in the form of community based enterprises. Indirectly it also contributed to migrant labour that sent cash and goods back home. The study shows that it is evident that in a politically charged environment livelihood diversification has a range of positive effects. The re-emergence of the barter exchange economy in rural communities contributed to livelihood diversification although sustainability was limited. It is also possible for both barter exchange and the cash market to co-exist in a politically charged environment. The study also shows that traditional leadership and local authorities in study areas became more politicised and militarised and this diverted them from facilitating and supporting rural development and inhibited rural livelihood development efforts by different rural players. The study found that rural livelihoods are not static, and they adapted as best they could in the face of exogenous trends and shocks. Rural areas underwent deep transformations as a result of political dynamics, local livelihood initiatives and external livelihood support. Rural livelihoods changed as rural people devised combined livelihood strategies that went beyond farming. However, in contrast to the widely accepted argument that diversification plays an important role in poverty alleviation, this was clearly not the case in Zimbabwe‟s politically charged environment. This study contributes to the development debate with a case study on the type and extent of livelihood diversification strategies possible in a politically charged environment. Methodologically the study contributes to the possible application of a dual data collection system where data is collected from the top using different methods from those used to collect data from the bottom. This enriched the data at triangulation phase during analysis. The study also contributes to the understanding of the political economy, the type of rural livelihood development possible in politically charged environments, and to how rural people in Zimbabwe react and behave in an endeavour to survive. There was an increased role played by external interventions in livelihood diversification but the extent of their contribution to positive livelihood outcomes was constrained by the politically charged environment that prompted the interventions in the first place. The normal processes of policy development and implementation changed as the role of politicians in planning and implementation became evident and policy aims shifted from rural development to political party self-preservation.

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Climate change involves long-term change in the state of the climate. It is expected to have negative effects which include the increased frequency and intensity of climate extremes such as droughts, floods and storms. In addition, agricultural seasons and productivity are generally expected to be affected. This is likely to compound the problems that rural people in Africa face, especially the smallholder farmers. Thus, adaptation is of paramount importance. However, many factors limit the ability of farmers to adapt to climate change. This includes lack of information and knowledge about climate change. In rural areas an important source of information is agricultural extension; however, in some cases it is not effective and efficient. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have been noted to play an important role in the dissemination of agricultural information, and recently, their potential in contributing to climate change awareness and adaptation has received increased attention. Therefore, the study aims to explore how ICTs contribute to climate change awareness and adaptation amongst communal farmers. The study was conducted in Seke and Murewa Rural Districts (herein Seke and Murewa) situated in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe. The target population were communal farmers who are mainly dependent on agriculture (field crops, horticulture, fruit production, and livestock rearing). The two districts have climate associated with natural agro-ecological region II, with an average rainfall of 500-700 mm. The study used the mixed methods approach, which combined the quantitative method based on a survey of 300 farming households and the qualitative method based on key informant interviews. A multi-stage sampling approach was used for the survey. The data was collected in 2011. The Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) package was used for data entry and descriptive statistics, while Stata data analytical package was used for regression analysis. The first objective was to determine the level of access to ICTs by communal farmers in the two districts. Most of the respondents in both districts knew and owned the following ICTs namely, the radio, the mobile phone, and the television (TV). The main power sources for the ICTs were solar power, national grid electricity, and rechargeable batteries. Most of the respondents in both districts read newspapers, and church magazines. For almost all the print media in both districts, the main source of the media was through friends and relatives, buying and to some extent libraries and public places. The majority of respondents understood the language used in various ICTs, though some had difficulties in understanding the English language. The second objective was to assess how access to ICTs influenced climate change awareness amongst communal farmers in the two districts. The majority of respondents in both districts were generally found to be aware of climate change. Nevertheless, some of those who perceived themselves as being aware were actually not aware or had low awareness as revealed by the climate change awareness index. The respondents had limited understanding of the issues relating to causes and intervention measures to address climate change. From the regression analysis, the following factors were found to have a significant positive influence on climate change awareness: access to mobile phone, access to radio, access to newspapers, access to agricultural extension, participation in developmental and farmer organisations, having talked about climate change, education level, and age of the respondent. One variable namely position of authority had a significant negative relationship. The third objective of the study was to investigate the contribution of ICTs in climate change adaptation amongst the communal farmers. This objective was fulfilled by mainly concentrating on assessing how farmers accessed forecasting and early warning information. Up to two-thirds of the respondents indicated that they did not have access to timely early warning information on droughts and violent storms. In addition, around half of the respondents indicated that they were not getting information on the likely rainfall amount and distribution in the coming season. Respondents ranked deciding the planting dates and the choice of crop varieties as the most important farm decision-making activities that were influenced by forecasting information. Some of the channels through which farmers accessed early warning and weather information were radio, extension, direct enquiry, TV, other farmers, newspapers, mobile phone, and farming magazines. This study showed that both old and new ICTs are important in information dissemination and capacity building for climate change adaptation and awareness. In order for rural people to benefit from various applications and capabilities of ICTs, in particular, mobile phone applications, there is need to improve telecommunications and broadcasting infrastructure. Agricultural extension workers who are an important source of information in rural areas, had less knowledge on climate change issues hence the need to incorporate such issues into their training. Initiatives to promote climate change awareness and adaptation should provide platforms for diverse stakeholders to share and exchange information and knowledge on climate change. There is need to improve the reliability of weather forecasting information as well as training farmers on how to interpret the information. Most importantly, complimentary agricultural information, inputs, and technologies should be available and accessible to the farmers. / Environmental Sciences / D. Litt. et Phil (Environmental Management)

Climate change involves long-term change in the state of the climate. It is expected to have negative effects which include the increased frequency and intensity of climate extremes such as droughts, floods and storms. In addition, agricultural seasons and productivity are generally expected to be affected. This is likely to compound the problems that rural people in Africa face, especially the smallholder farmers. Thus, adaptation is of paramount importance. However, many factors limit the ability of farmers to adapt to climate change. This includes lack of information and knowledge about climate change. In rural areas an important source of information is agricultural extension; however, in some cases it is not effective and efficient. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have been noted to play an important role in the dissemination of agricultural information, and recently, their potential in contributing to climate change awareness and adaptation has received increased attention. Therefore, the study aims to explore how ICTs contribute to climate change awareness and adaptation amongst communal farmers. The study was conducted in Seke and Murewa Rural Districts (herein Seke and Murewa) situated in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe. The target population were communal farmers who are mainly dependent on agriculture (field crops, horticulture, fruit production, and livestock rearing). The two districts have climate associated with natural agro-ecological region II, with an average rainfall of 500-700 mm. The study used the mixed methods approach, which combined the quantitative method based on a survey of 300 farming households and the qualitative method based on key informant interviews. A multi-stage sampling approach was used for the survey. The data was collected in 2011. The Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) package was used for data entry and descriptive statistics, while Stata data analytical package was used for regression analysis. The first objective was to determine the level of access to ICTs by communal farmers in the two districts. Most of the respondents in both districts knew and owned the following ICTs namely, the radio, the mobile phone, and the television (TV). The main power sources for the ICTs were solar power, national grid electricity, and rechargeable batteries. Most of the respondents in both districts read newspapers, and church magazines. For almost all the print media in both districts, the main source of the media was through friends and relatives, buying and to some extent libraries and public places. The majority of respondents understood the language used in various ICTs, though some had difficulties in understanding the English language. The second objective was to assess how access to ICTs influenced climate change awareness amongst communal farmers in the two districts. The majority of respondents in both districts were generally found to be aware of climate change. Nevertheless, some of those who perceived themselves as being aware were actually not aware or had low awareness as revealed by the climate change awareness index. The respondents had limited understanding of the issues relating to causes and intervention measures to address climate change. From the regression analysis, the following factors were found to have a significant positive influence on climate change awareness: access to mobile phone, access to radio, access to newspapers, access to agricultural extension, participation in developmental and farmer organisations, having talked about climate change, education level, and age of the respondent. One variable namely position of authority had a significant negative relationship. The third objective of the study was to investigate the contribution of ICTs in climate change adaptation amongst the communal farmers. This objective was fulfilled by mainly concentrating on assessing how farmers accessed forecasting and early warning information. Up to two-thirds of the respondents indicated that they did not have access to timely early warning information on droughts and violent storms. In addition, around half of the respondents indicated that they were not getting information on the likely rainfall amount and distribution in the coming season. Respondents ranked deciding the planting dates and the choice of crop varieties as the most important farm decision-making activities that were influenced by forecasting information. Some of the channels through which farmers accessed early warning and weather information were radio, extension, direct enquiry, TV, other farmers, newspapers, mobile phone, and farming magazines. This study showed that both old and new ICTs are important in information dissemination and capacity building for climate change adaptation and awareness. In order for rural people to benefit from various applications and capabilities of ICTs, in particular, mobile phone applications, there is need to improve telecommunications and broadcasting infrastructure. Agricultural extension workers who are an important source of information in rural areas, had less knowledge on climate change issues hence the need to incorporate such issues into their training. Initiatives to promote climate change awareness and adaptation should provide platforms for diverse stakeholders to share and exchange information and knowledge on climate change. There is need to improve the reliability of weather forecasting information as well as training farmers on how to interpret the information. Most importantly, complimentary agricultural information, inputs, and technologies should be available and accessible to the farmers. / Environmental Sciences / D. Litt. et Phil (Environmental Management)

Text in English / The study analysed the effects of conservation farming in Zimbabwe using a mixed methodology approach. This analysis comes against the background of the recognition that climate change, as characterized by severe droughts, has played a significant role in reducing agricultural productivity, in the process leaving smallholder farmers and the nation of Zimbabwe exposed to recurrent food insecurity. Conservation farming was introduced as a climate adaptation strategy that was aimed at improving crop yields. The study focused on assessing the association between the adoption of conservation farming and a concomitant increase in agricultural productivity. This was key in understanding if there are benefits of using conservation farming as opposed to making use of the conventional method of farming. The study also investigated the nature of conservation farming being practiced in Umguza District; this was done in order to understand whether smallholder farmers are implementing all the key principles underpinning the use of conservation farming. The study further assessed the challenges and opportunities that exist through the use of conservation farming with the aim of coming up with sustainable solutions to the challenges affecting smallholder farmers. The study went on to assess the factors that determine the adoption and maximum utilization of conservation farming. Identification of these key variables was instrumental in the design of a localized conservation farming model. Study results revealed that conservation farming is an effective method of increasing agricultural productivity. The study also established that smallholder farmers are not implementing all the key principles of conservation farming and this was attributed to the failure to include the smallholder farmers in the design of conservation farming models. It was further revealed that smallholder farmers face various challenges that include access to inputs and limited support from the government. Implications of the study highlight the need for the community to be actively involved in the design of a conservation farming model localized to the unique context of smallholder farmers. A prototype for implementing a sustainable conservation farming model was developed in collaboration with the smallholder farmers as part of a solution based approach to dealing with the challenges affecting smallholder farmers. / School of Agriculture and Life Sciences / Ph. D.