L’action civile en contrefaçon de droit d’auteur a une nature juridique duale : elle est d’une part une action défensive d’un droit subjectif, plus précisément une action réelle (comparable à l’action en revendication), d’autre part une action en responsabilité civile délictuelle. Or de cette dualité naît une contradiction. En tant qu’action défensive, l’action est vouée à l’automaticité, la contrefaçon devant être la seule condition de son succès, à l’exclusion de la faute et du préjudice. Mais en tant qu’action en responsabilité, elle est vouée à la casuistique, au respect des conditions contenues aux articles 1382 et suivants du Code civil. Face à cette contradiction, le droit positif tend à privilégier la nature réelle de l’action. Depuis les années quatre-vingt-dix, en effet, les règles classiques de la responsabilité n’ont cessé d’être évincées du procès en contrefaçon. En guise de justification, on évoque parfois le caractère « lucratif » de la contrefaçon et la nécessité qu’il y aurait de s’affranchir de règles faisant le jeu du contrefacteur - en particulier celle de la réparation intégrale. Il reste que cette évolution est critiquable, puisqu’elle crée un hiatus entre le régime de l’action et sa nature juridique. Au contraire, il faut admettre un principe dit « de variabilité », en vertu duquel le régime de l’action varie selon l’objet considéré : automatique lorsqu’elle vise à faire cesser la contrefaçon, elle doit renouer avec les règles classiques de la responsabilité lorsqu’elle vise la réparation. Quant au caractère lucratif de la contrefaçon, sa neutralisation ne doit pas passer par le forçage du principe de la réparation intégrale, mais par la consécration d’un tiers objet autonome : la restitution des gains illicites. Ainsi, l’action en contrefaçon serait efficace, sans pour autant violer sa nature, ni la tradition juridique française. / The legal nature of the civil action for copyright infringement is dual. This is on the one hand a defensive action of a subjective right, more precisely an action in rem (which can be compared to the action for recovery, "action en revendication"), and on the other hand a civil tort action. However, from such dualism arises a contradiction. As a defensive action, it has propensity to be automatic and the infringement shall be the sole criterion of its achievement, excluding any fault or damage. Nonetheless, as an action for civil liability, it should be analysed on a case by case basis, taking into account all criteria provided by the French civil code in Articles 1382 et seq. In the face of such inconsistency, substantive law tends to emphasise the in rem nature of this action for copyright infringement. Indeed, since the 90's, the classic rules of civil liability have continuously been ousted from infringement lawsuits. The lucrative nature of the infringement and the necessity to disregard some rules in favour of the infringer, in particular the principle of full compensation ("réparation intégrale") for the damage caused are often brought forward to justify this tendency. Nevertheless, such evolution is questionable as it generates a hiatus between the legal regime and the legal nature of the civil action for copyright infringement. On the contrary, a principle of "variability" should be acknowledged, according to which the legal regime of such action would vary depending on its purpose. In the event the action would aim at stopping the infringement, it should be automatic. However, where the action would aim at seeking compensation for the damage suffered, the classic rules of civil liability should apply. With regard to the lucrative nature of the infringement, it should not be neutralised by the forcing of the principle of full compensation, but rather by the restitution of illegal profits. As such, the infringement action would be effective, without violating neither its legal nature nor the French legal tradition.

We examined the effect of changing from an internally prepared motor plan to a revised action which potentially differed from the original plan along two dimensions: wrist orientation (horizontal or vertical) and left/right hand. Participants were instructed to prepare a particular hand grasp action and then were cued either to execute that motor plan or cancel it and plan a new action. In Experiments I and II, if the change from the original motor plan to an alternate response implied an action different from the prepared one, there was a slowing in response time. Moreover, if there was a change, maintaining the originally planned wrist orientation produced faster responses than changing orientation, but only if the response hand remained constant between planned and alternate actions and the cue was an image of a hand depicting a goal posture. In Experiment III, when the alternate action was cued by an image of an object inviting a particular grasp action, there was transfer only of the hand feature. In a final experiment, participants switched from a prepared action to naming a manipulable object. The motor features of the object differed from the original motor plan in the same way as in previous experiments. No effect of the previously cancelled motor plan was seen on naming latencies. These results elucidate the nature of motor plans and the role of motor actions in the representation of objects. / Graduate

La mise en place d’un comportement semble en grande partie déterminée par la capacité du système cognitif à intégrer, au sein de représentations cohérentes, le flux continu d’informations provenant de l’environnement. Les travaux réalisés lors de cette thèse viennent modérer ce lien de causalité, et apportent des éléments en faveur d’une co-détermination de l’intégration des informations perceptives et de la mise en place d’un comportement moteur. En d’autres termes, cette thèse soutient l’idée que les actions effectuées par un individu ne sont pas seulement le produit d’une activité interne, mais sont aussi et surtout une condition de possibilité de la construction d’une représentation cohérente de nos interactions avec l’environnement.La première étude que nous avons réalisée a permis de mettre en évidence le rôle fonctionnel des réponses motrices dans le processus d’intégration. Dans une seconde étude, nous avons montré que les composants perceptifs et moteurs ne sont pas seulement co-activés lors de l’activité perceptive, mais bien intégrés les uns aux autres au sein d’une même représentation sensorimotrice. Enfin, notre dernière étude indique que la construction de telles représentations pourrait dépendre de l’intégration des conséquences sensorimotrices de nos actions. Pris dans une perspective plus large, l’ensemble de ces résultats souligne le rôle fondamental de l’action dans la cognition, et suggère finalement de reconsidérer la distinction stricte que nous opérons habituellement entre les éléments perceptifs et moteurs qui composent nos représentations. / The ability to integrate the vast amount of information coming from the environmentinto a coherent representation is usually considered a necessary conditionfor any behavior to take place. In this Ph.D. thesis, our proposal is to moderatethis apparent causality, and to bring new elements that support the idea of a codeterminationof the building of sensorimotor representations and the execution ofmotor behavior. In other words, we propose that actions are not only adapted toexternal constraints through an internal activity, but also contribute to the buildingof coherent representations of the world. Therefore, we made a series of experimentsto highlight the role of motor activity in the process of binding perceptiveinformation. The first study examined the functional role of motor responses inthe integration process, which were found to be a necessary condition for an integrationto take place. The second study investigated the link between perceptiveand motor components. The results showed that both are indeed integrated into acommon sensorimotor representation. Our final study shed light on the fact thatbuilding sensorimotor representations seems to rely on the integration of sensorimotoraction-effects. Taken together, our results point toward the critical role of motoractivity in cognitive processes, and question the relevance of distinguishing motorcomponents from perceptive ones.

The electrophysiological properties of dentate granule cells and hippocampal pyramidal neurons were examined with extracellular and intracellular recording techniques in the hippocampal slice. Intracellular analysis revealed that there may exist two populations of granule cells distinguishable by the presence or absence of non-linear current-voltage (I-V) membrane properties (anomalous rectification, AR). The granule cells exhibiting AR also maintained greater resting membrane potentials and action potential (AP) amplitude values. The membrane input resistance (Rn) and time constant (Tc) measurements were similar between the populations in response to hyperpolarizing current injection, but granule cells displaying AR had significantly higher Rn and Tc values in response to depolarizing pulses. Both groups also responded to maintained depolarizing current injection with repetitive AP discharges; however, this response accommodated. Upon termination of the depolarizing current injection, an afterhyperpolarization (AHP) resulted, the amplitude of which appeared to depend on the duration of the depolarizing pulse and not on the number of APs generated during the pulse. Stimulation of either the lateral (LPP) or medial (MPP) perforant paths evoked a monosynaptic EPSP followed by a depolarizing afterpotential (DAP) and a long afterhyperpolarization (LHP). In contrast, antidromic stimulation elicited a depolarizing-IPSP (D-IPSP) and a LHP. Both the DAP and D-IPSP were reversed by membrane depolarization, whereas, the LHP was inverted by membrane hyperpolarization. In all cases, however, the EPSP could not be inverted. Afterpotentials were associated with an increase in conductance, but the change accompanying the LHP was less than the DAP and D-IPSP. In addition, by reducing the [Ca]₀ and increasing the [Mg]₀, the DAP was attenuated and the LHP eliminated. Similar results were also obtained with the GABAB agonist, baclofen. Paired pulse stimulation of either the LPP or MPP resulted in the potentiation of the intracellular EPSP at condition-test (C-T) intervals less than 100 ms; however, simultaneous extracellular records from the granule cell layer (GCL) illustrated depression of the EPSP. The discrepancy between the extra- and intracellular recordings was shown to be related to the presence of the DAP. In addition, the MPP evoked test EPSP at C-T intervals greater than 150 ms exhibited inhibition regardless of whether it was recorded inside or outside the granule cell and this EPSP depression was partially due to the granule cell LHP. The LPP evoked test EPSP potentiated at all C-T intervals less than 1s when recorded from the outer molecular layer (OML) but was inhibited at both the GCL and intracellular recording sites. These data confirmed that postsynaptic processes contribute to the short-term alterations observed with paired pulse stimulation. The typical inhibition-potentiation-inhibition sequence of the perforant path (PP) evoked population spike (PS) was noted at C-T intervals of 20, 80 and 400 ms, respectively. The inhibition of the PS at 20 ms was abolished with perfusion of the GABA antagonist, bicuculline. In contrast, the PS inhibition at 400ms was unaffected by this treatment but was slightly attenuated by the gKca antagonist TEA. A number of factors appeared to contribute to the potentiation of the PS: 1) reduction in AP threshold; 2) the presence of the DAP; and 3) extrasynaptic events. In addition to the PS data from normal tissue, hippocampal slices from chronically kindled rats exhibited depression of the PS at all C-T intervals tested. This augmentation of inhibition was dependent on the presence of hippocampal afterdischarges but not on motor seizures. Perfusing the kindled slices with either bicuculline or lowered [Cl]₀ did not markedly reverse the enhanced inhibition at C-T intervals which displayed dramatic facilitation in normal slices. Intracellular recordings of granule cells obtained from kindled slices also exhibited an increase in the Rn and Tc. Both the alterations in inhibition and membrane characteristics appear to be localized to.the granule cells, since these changes were not observed in CA1 pyramidal neurons. These data indicate that short-term and long-term alterations in granule cell neuronal excitability are partially due to changes in the postsynaptic membrane. / Medicine, Faculty of / Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Department of / Graduate

La recherche actuelle est entreprise dans l’optique de la révision complète du design chimique et des principes d’élaboration des photocatalyseurs composites supportés (PCCS) afin d’améliorer considérablement leurs capacités réactionnelles, la durabilité de leur action en temps et de résoudre le problème de pollution secondaire des milieux à traiter. Les travaux effectués ont permis la mise en œuvre d’un nouveau modèle de PCCS interactifs dont les composants photosensibles sont en fortes interactions chimiques avec leurs supports appartenant au groupe d’acides de Lewis. Cette particularité assure une grande sélectivité d’action des produits développés, leur fonctionnement durable en régime stationnaire, évite la pollution secondaire des effluents à traiter et garanti une performance photocatalytique comparable à celle du produit de référence Degussa P25.Les travaux réalisés ont permis d’acquérir de nouvelles connaissances scientifiques concernant le rôle de l’acidité de surface dans l’action photocatalytique et du taux de dissociation de l’eau adsorbée sur le produit actif. De plus, un ensemble de huit paramètres principaux assurant les meilleures conditions d’exploitation des PCCS a été établi.Les PCCS développés peuvent être appliqués, tout d’abord, dans le domaine de l’incinération photocatalytique des COV. Un prototype de filtre dynamique capable de traiter 50 m3/h de l’air avec une consommation d’énergie modérée, est conçu. Un nouveau type de matériaux composites à vocation germicide à base de polymères synthétiques fait également l’objet de la partie applicative de ces travaux de thèse. / The current research is undertaken in the context of the complete reconsideration of the supported composite photocatalysts (SCPC) chemical design and elaboration principles in order to improve their reaction capacities, to assure the sustainability of their action in time and to resolve the secondary pollution problem for the media to treat. This work enabled the implementation of a new model of interactive SCPC in which the photosensitive components occur in a strong chemical interaction with their supports belonging to the Lewis acid group. This feature provides the developed products with high selectivity, allows them to function in the stationary conditions, avoids the secondary pollution effect and guarantees the photocatalytic performance comparable with the one of the reference industrial photocatalyst Degussa P25. An important scientific knowledge on the role of the surface acidity in the photocatalytic action and on the dissociation state of the water adsorbed over the active product was acquired. Apart from this, a set of eight main parameters ensuring the best SCPC operation properties was established. The developed SCPC are forecasted to be firstly applied in the photocatalytic VOC oxidation processes. A prototype of such filter capable to treat 50 m3/h of air, having modest energy consumption, was designed. A new composite material with germicidal properties elaborated using synthetic polymer supports, also constitutes a subject of the applications part of this thesis.

The volitional theory of action has recently been assailed as an outmoded account of human action, while attempts have been made to preserve the theory on grounds which side-step the traditional difficulties. Both approaches to the theory have left it without a coherent expression. This thesis is an attempt to give a coherent theoretical foundation to the theory and to effect its critical evaluation. Preceding a discussion of the theory is a historical appreciation of its tradition, and this is used as a backdrop for viewing two aspects of the theory which serve today as its paradigms. The one is an analysis of human action in terms of a volition which is considered as something which an agent performs, and the other is an analysis of human action in terms of a volition connected causally to an item of behavior, The incompatibility of these aspects is indicated, and an attempt is made to locate them within a wider theoretical structure. This is done by distinguishing between atomic actions and instrumental actions and by attributing to the theory two definitions of an individual human action which preserve these paradigms and which account for both sorts of actions. The final segment of the thesis is concerned with a critical dismissal of the theory. The stock arguments against the theory are first defeated, end it is then argued that one aspect of the theory fails to account for forbearances and that the other aspect does not provide an adequate account of atomic actions. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

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Why, despite the territorial fragmentation and unresolved conflicts in both countries, does NATO maintain a public commitment to a 2008 decision promising the future membership of Ukraine and Georgia? It can be argued that the "Bucharest decision" has prompted the very attack that NATO membership was meant to prevent. Russia has invaded both states to, among other things, prevent their likely incorporation in NATO. What causes publicly articulated military alliance policy aspirations to endure when they induce such geopolitical conflict, and geopolitical transformation, that it undermines their purpose? This dissertation takes these puzzles as its object of inquiry. The focus of the study is Ukraine and Georgia's partial integration into NATO from 2007 to 2020. This research uses the concepts of robust action and rhetorical action to examine the two countries' growing partnerships with the alliance during this period. It defines robust action as a series of ambiguous moves to achieve tactical goals while maintaining long term flexibility. Rhetorical action is defined as the strategic use of arguments to serve an agent's interests. By using a narrative analysis method, the study draws from a body of NATO official texts and speeches and a set of original interviews to illustrate the public and private narratives used by political and military officials to help them make sense of NATO's engagement with Ukraine and Georgia. Existing literature on NATO expansion has not addressed how the alliance has adapted the process of integrating aspirant countries short of membership. Moreover, the literature on robust action has not focused on how international security organizations like NATO can use ambiguous actions to tackle complex challenges and maintain flexibility. The study argues that NATO's engagement with Ukraine and Georgia since Bucharest constitutes a robust action strategy. Through a combination of rhetorical and material support, NATO has simultaneously been able to maintain the appearance of a commitment to the two countries, show Western resolve and solidarity in opposing Russia and sustaining the United States' preferred vision of Europe's security order, all while denying Ukraine and Georgia "full membership" in the alliance. Ukraine, Georgia, and their allies in NATO have used rhetorical action, arguments based on the self-defined liberal values and norms of the Euro-Atlantic community that NATO represents on the one hand, and the historical precedent of an open door policy toward membership, on the other, to rhetorically entrap NATO into staying committed. The study shows how multilateral commitments are more layered than the traditional membership/no membership choice and how NATO has been able to successfully maintain such a commitment through both rhetoric and action while avoiding a direct war with Russia. It concludes however that NATO's commitment is untenable for a military alliance based on defense and deterrence. This has implications for the future of NATO expansion and the overall trajectory of the alliance. / Doctor of Philosophy / The possibility of further expanding NATO to Ukraine and Georgia has been among the alliance's greatest challenges since the 2008 Bucharest summit decision, which promised the future membership of the two countries. Many accounts tend to focus on the original motivation behind the decision rather than NATO's practice of maintaining a commitment to such a decision in the light of the unresolved conflicts and territorial fragmentation of both states. This study, by contrast, examines the rhetoric and action in the making of the two countries' deepening partnerships with NATO since Bucharest. This research examines how through a set of ambiguous rhetoric and action NATO has been able to maintain the appearance of a commitment to Ukraine and Georgia, project Western resolve against Russian opposition, and sustain the United States' preferred vision of the European security order, all while denying the two countries membership in the alliance. Moreover, the advocates for Ukraine and Georgia use arguments based on NATO's identity, values, and the precedent of prior expansions to convince the alliance into staying committed to their eventual membership. The study shows how NATO has devised a formula for integrating aspirant members, short of "full membership." It is useful because it shows how, in practice, multilateral commitments are more layered than they are traditionally understood. While NATO has been able to successfully maintain this commitment through both rhetoric and action, such a commitment clashes with important qualities of adaptability and flexibility to changing strategic realities, crucial to the endurance of a military alliance over the long term.

Yes / The central aim of this chapter is to describe the policy and practice of affirmative action measures. It synthesizes findings from published studies and highlights the rationale, drivers, benefits, beneficiaries, effectiveness, and impacts of affirmative action policies and practices in different countries. The chapter will discuss the possible lessons from these studies and highlight the link between affirmative action policies and practices and contributions to achieving target 5 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).