Le fonctionnement du cortex cérébral nécessite l’action coordonnée de deux des sous-types majeurs de neurones, soient les neurones à projections glutamatergiques et les interneurones GABAergiques. Les interneurones GABAergiques ne constituent que 20 à 30% des cellules corticales par rapport au grand nombre de neurones glutamatergiques. Leur rôle est toutefois prépondérant puisqu’ils modulent fortement la dynamique et la plasticité des réseaux néocorticaux. Il n’est donc pas surprenant que les altérations de développement des circuits GABAergiques soient associées à plusieurs maladies du cerveau, incluant l’épilepsie, le syndrome de Rett et la schizophrénie. La compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires régissant le développement des circuits GABAergiques est une étape essentielle menant vers une meilleure compréhension de la façon dont les anormalités se produisent. Conséquemment, nous nous intéressons au rôle de l’acide polysialique (PSA) dans le développement des synapses GABAergiques. PSA est un homopolymère de chaînons polysialylés en α-2,8, et est exclusivement lié à la molécule d’adhésion aux cellules neuronales (NCAM) dans les cerveaux de mammifères. PSA est impliqué dans plusieurs processus développementaux, y compris la formation et la plasticité des synapses glutamatergiques, mais son rôle dans les réseaux GABAergiques reste à préciser. Les données générées dans le laboratoire du Dr. Di Cristo démontrent que PSA est fortement exprimé post- natalement dans le néocortex des rongeurs, que son abondance diminue au cours du développement, et, faits importants, que son expression dépend de l’activité visuelle i et est inversement corrélée à la maturation des synapses GABAergiques. La présente propose de caractériser les mécanismes moléculaires régulant l’expression de PSA dans le néocortex visuel de la souris. Les enzymes polysialyltransférases ST8SiaII (STX) et ST8SiaIV (PST) sont responsables de la formation de la chaîne de PSA sur NCAM. En contrôlant ainsi la quantité de PSA sur NCAM, ils influenceraient le développement des synapses GABAergiques. Mon projet consiste à déterminer comment l’expression des polysialyltransférases est régulée dans le néocortex visuel des souris durant la période post-natale; ces données sont à la fois inconnues, et cruciales. Nous utilisons un système de cultures organotypiques dont la maturation des synapses GABAergiques est comparable au modèle in vivo. L’analyse de l’expression génique par qPCR a démontré que l’expression des polysialyltransférases diminue au cours du développement; une baisse majeure corrélant avec l’ouverture des yeux chez la souris. Nous avons de plus illustré pour la première fois que l’expression de STX, et non celle de PST, est activité-dépendante, et que ce processus requiert l’activation du récepteur NMDA, une augmentation du niveau de calcium intracellulaire et la protéine kinase C (PKC). Ces données démontrent que STX est l’enzyme régulant préférentiellement le niveau de PSA sur NCAM au cours de la période post-natale dans le cortex visuel des souris. Des données préliminaires d’un second volet de notre investigation suggèrent que l’acétylation des histones et la méthylation de l’ADN pourraient également contribuer à la régulation de la transcription de cette enzyme durant le développement. Plus d’investigations seront toutefois nécessaires afin de confirmer cette hypothèse. En somme, la connaissance des mécanismes par lesquels l’expression des ii polysialyltransférases est modulée est essentielle à la compréhension du processus de maturation des synapses GABAergiques. Ceci permettrait de moduler pharmacologiquement l’expression de ces enzymes; la sur-expression de STX et/ou PST pourrait produire une plus grande quantité de PSA, déstabiliser les synapses GABAergiques, et conséquemment, ré-induire la plasticité cérébrale. / The functioning of the cerebral cortex requires coordinated action of two major neuronal subtypes - the glutamatergic projection neurons and the GABAergic interneurons. GABAergic interneurons represent 20 to 30% of all cortical cells. Even though they are a minor cell population in the cerebral cortex compared to glutamatergic neurons, they are key modulators of network dynamics and plasticity of neocortical circuits. It is therefore not surprising that aberrant development of GABAergic circuits is implicated in many neurodevelopmental disorders including epilepsy, Rett syndrome and schizophrenia. Understanding the molecular mechanisms governing the development of GABAergic inhibitory synapses in neocortex is important towards a better comprehension of how abnormalities in this developmental process can occur. Therefore, we focus specifically on the role of polysialic acid (PSA) in the development of GABAergic synapses. PSA is a α-2,8 polysialylated homopolymer, which is exclusively linked to the Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM) in the mammalian brain. It is involved in several developmental processes including formation and plasticity of glutamatergic synapses; however its role in GABAergic circuit formation has not been explored so far. Previously in Dr Di Cristo’s lab, we showed that PSA is strongly expressed post-natally and its expression steadily declines during development in mice neocortex. We also showed that the developmental and activity-dependant regulation of PSA expression is inversely correlated with the maturation of perisomatic GABAergic innervation. Our aim is to characterize the molecular mechanisms regulating PSA expression in mouse iv visual cortex during post-natal development. Two polysialyltransferases, ST8SiaII (STX) and ST8SiaIV (PST), are responsible for PSA attachment to NCAM. By controlling the amount of PSA on NCAM, they can influence GABAergic synapses development. The mechanisms regulating STX and PST expression is crucial but remain still unknown. My research project focused on the mechanisms regulating STX and PST transcription in the mouse postnatal cortex. We used an organotypic culture system, which recapitulates many aspects of GABAergic synapse maturation as observed in vivo. Polysialyltransferases transcript levels were measured by qPCR and showed that STX and PST mRNA levels steadily decline during post-natal development in the mouse cortex; the sharpest reduction in the expression of both enzymes correlate with eye opening. We further demonstrate for the first time that STX mRNA levels is activity-dependant, requires the activation of NMDA receptors, an increase in intracellular Calcium levels and is PKC-dependent. Altogether, we show that the regulation of the expression of STX is the main mechanism responsible for PSA expression levels in the cortex around eyes opening. We next investigated whether epigenetic mechanisms regulate STX transcription and preliminary data suggest that histone acetylation and DNA methylation may contribute to STX expression during development. However, further experiments are required to confirm this hypothesis. In summary, understanding the mechanisms modulating STX and PST expression in the neocortex is essential for the comprehension of their precise role in GABAergic synapse maturation. This knowledge could allow us to modulate pharmacologically the expression of these enzymes; in turn overexpression of STX and PST may re-induce PSA expression, thereby destabilizing GABAergic synapses, and ultimately facilitating cortical plasticity in the adult.

Several studies reported training-induced improvements in executive function tasks and also observed transfer to untrained tasks. However, the results are mixed and there is a large interindividual variability within and across studies. Given that training-related performance changes would require modification, growth or differentiation at the cellular and synaptic level in the brain, research on critical moderators of brain plasticity potentially explaining such changes is needed. In the present study, a pre-post-follow-up design (N = 122) and a 3-weeks training of two response inhibition tasks (Go/NoGo and Stop-Signal) was employed and genetic variation (Val66Met) in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promoting differentiation and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity was examined. Because Serotonin (5-HT) signaling and the interplay of BDNF and 5-HT are known to critically mediate brain plasticity, genetic variation in the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) was also addressed. The overall results show that the kind of training (i.e., adaptive vs. non-adaptive) did not evoke genotype-dependent differences. However, in the Go/NoGo task, better inhibition performance (lower commission errors) were observed for BDNF Val/Val genotype carriers compared to Met-allele ones supporting similar findings from other cognitive tasks. Additionally, a gene-gene interaction suggests a more impulsive response pattern (faster responses accompanied by higher commission error rates) in homozygous l-allele carriers relative to those with the s-allele of 5-HTTLPR. This, however, is true only in the presence of the Met-allele of BDNF, while the Val/Val genotype seems to compensate for such non-adaptive responding. Intriguingly, similar results were obtained for the Stop-Signal task. Here, differences emerged at post-testing, while no differences were observed at T1. In sum, although no genotype-dependent differences between the relevant training groups emerged suggesting no changes in the trained inhibition function, the observed genotype-dependent performance changes from pre- to post measurement may reflect rapid learning or memory effects linked to BDNF and 5-HTTLPR. In line with ample evidence on BDNF and BDNF-5-HT system interactions to induce (rapid) plasticity especially in hippocampal regions and in response to environmental demands, the findings may reflect genotype-dependent differences in the acquisition and consolidation of task-relevant information, thereby facilitating a more adaptive responding to task-specific requirements.

Le fonctionnement du cortex cérébral nécessite l’action coordonnée de deux des sous-types majeurs de neurones, soient les neurones à projections glutamatergiques et les interneurones GABAergiques. Les interneurones GABAergiques ne constituent que 20 à 30% des cellules corticales par rapport au grand nombre de neurones glutamatergiques. Leur rôle est toutefois prépondérant puisqu’ils modulent fortement la dynamique et la plasticité des réseaux néocorticaux. Il n’est donc pas surprenant que les altérations de développement des circuits GABAergiques soient associées à plusieurs maladies du cerveau, incluant l’épilepsie, le syndrome de Rett et la schizophrénie. La compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires régissant le développement des circuits GABAergiques est une étape essentielle menant vers une meilleure compréhension de la façon dont les anormalités se produisent. Conséquemment, nous nous intéressons au rôle de l’acide polysialique (PSA) dans le développement des synapses GABAergiques. PSA est un homopolymère de chaînons polysialylés en α-2,8, et est exclusivement lié à la molécule d’adhésion aux cellules neuronales (NCAM) dans les cerveaux de mammifères. PSA est impliqué dans plusieurs processus développementaux, y compris la formation et la plasticité des synapses glutamatergiques, mais son rôle dans les réseaux GABAergiques reste à préciser. Les données générées dans le laboratoire du Dr. Di Cristo démontrent que PSA est fortement exprimé post- natalement dans le néocortex des rongeurs, que son abondance diminue au cours du développement, et, faits importants, que son expression dépend de l’activité visuelle i et est inversement corrélée à la maturation des synapses GABAergiques. La présente propose de caractériser les mécanismes moléculaires régulant l’expression de PSA dans le néocortex visuel de la souris. Les enzymes polysialyltransférases ST8SiaII (STX) et ST8SiaIV (PST) sont responsables de la formation de la chaîne de PSA sur NCAM. En contrôlant ainsi la quantité de PSA sur NCAM, ils influenceraient le développement des synapses GABAergiques. Mon projet consiste à déterminer comment l’expression des polysialyltransférases est régulée dans le néocortex visuel des souris durant la période post-natale; ces données sont à la fois inconnues, et cruciales. Nous utilisons un système de cultures organotypiques dont la maturation des synapses GABAergiques est comparable au modèle in vivo. L’analyse de l’expression génique par qPCR a démontré que l’expression des polysialyltransférases diminue au cours du développement; une baisse majeure corrélant avec l’ouverture des yeux chez la souris. Nous avons de plus illustré pour la première fois que l’expression de STX, et non celle de PST, est activité-dépendante, et que ce processus requiert l’activation du récepteur NMDA, une augmentation du niveau de calcium intracellulaire et la protéine kinase C (PKC). Ces données démontrent que STX est l’enzyme régulant préférentiellement le niveau de PSA sur NCAM au cours de la période post-natale dans le cortex visuel des souris. Des données préliminaires d’un second volet de notre investigation suggèrent que l’acétylation des histones et la méthylation de l’ADN pourraient également contribuer à la régulation de la transcription de cette enzyme durant le développement. Plus d’investigations seront toutefois nécessaires afin de confirmer cette hypothèse. En somme, la connaissance des mécanismes par lesquels l’expression des ii polysialyltransférases est modulée est essentielle à la compréhension du processus de maturation des synapses GABAergiques. Ceci permettrait de moduler pharmacologiquement l’expression de ces enzymes; la sur-expression de STX et/ou PST pourrait produire une plus grande quantité de PSA, déstabiliser les synapses GABAergiques, et conséquemment, ré-induire la plasticité cérébrale. / The functioning of the cerebral cortex requires coordinated action of two major neuronal subtypes - the glutamatergic projection neurons and the GABAergic interneurons. GABAergic interneurons represent 20 to 30% of all cortical cells. Even though they are a minor cell population in the cerebral cortex compared to glutamatergic neurons, they are key modulators of network dynamics and plasticity of neocortical circuits. It is therefore not surprising that aberrant development of GABAergic circuits is implicated in many neurodevelopmental disorders including epilepsy, Rett syndrome and schizophrenia. Understanding the molecular mechanisms governing the development of GABAergic inhibitory synapses in neocortex is important towards a better comprehension of how abnormalities in this developmental process can occur. Therefore, we focus specifically on the role of polysialic acid (PSA) in the development of GABAergic synapses. PSA is a α-2,8 polysialylated homopolymer, which is exclusively linked to the Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM) in the mammalian brain. It is involved in several developmental processes including formation and plasticity of glutamatergic synapses; however its role in GABAergic circuit formation has not been explored so far. Previously in Dr Di Cristo’s lab, we showed that PSA is strongly expressed post-natally and its expression steadily declines during development in mice neocortex. We also showed that the developmental and activity-dependant regulation of PSA expression is inversely correlated with the maturation of perisomatic GABAergic innervation. Our aim is to characterize the molecular mechanisms regulating PSA expression in mouse iv visual cortex during post-natal development. Two polysialyltransferases, ST8SiaII (STX) and ST8SiaIV (PST), are responsible for PSA attachment to NCAM. By controlling the amount of PSA on NCAM, they can influence GABAergic synapses development. The mechanisms regulating STX and PST expression is crucial but remain still unknown. My research project focused on the mechanisms regulating STX and PST transcription in the mouse postnatal cortex. We used an organotypic culture system, which recapitulates many aspects of GABAergic synapse maturation as observed in vivo. Polysialyltransferases transcript levels were measured by qPCR and showed that STX and PST mRNA levels steadily decline during post-natal development in the mouse cortex; the sharpest reduction in the expression of both enzymes correlate with eye opening. We further demonstrate for the first time that STX mRNA levels is activity-dependant, requires the activation of NMDA receptors, an increase in intracellular Calcium levels and is PKC-dependent. Altogether, we show that the regulation of the expression of STX is the main mechanism responsible for PSA expression levels in the cortex around eyes opening. We next investigated whether epigenetic mechanisms regulate STX transcription and preliminary data suggest that histone acetylation and DNA methylation may contribute to STX expression during development. However, further experiments are required to confirm this hypothesis. In summary, understanding the mechanisms modulating STX and PST expression in the neocortex is essential for the comprehension of their precise role in GABAergic synapse maturation. This knowledge could allow us to modulate pharmacologically the expression of these enzymes; in turn overexpression of STX and PST may re-induce PSA expression, thereby destabilizing GABAergic synapses, and ultimately facilitating cortical plasticity in the adult.

No description available.

Patterned neuronal activity driven by the sensory environment plays a key role in the development of precise synaptic connectivity in the brain. It is well established that the action potentials (‘spikes’) generated by individual neurons are crucial to this developmental process. A neuron’s spiking activity is jointly determined by its synaptic inputs and its intrinsic excitability. It is therefore important to ask how a neuron develops these attributes, and whether the emergence of spiking might itself be governed by activity-dependent processes. In this thesis, I address these questions in the retinotectal system of Xenopus laevis. First, I investigate the extent to which visuospatial information is available to the developing retinotectal system. I show that the eyes of developing Xenopus larvae are hyperopic at the onset of vision, but rapidly grow towards correct vision. Despite its imperfect optics, the Xenopus eye is able to generate spatially restricted activity on the retina, which is evident in the spatial structure of the receptive fields (RFs) of tectal neurons. Using a novel method to map the visually driven spiking output and synaptic inputs of the same tectal neuron in vivo, I show that neuronal spiking activity closely follows the spatiotemporal profile of glutamatergic inputs. Next, I characterise a population of neurons in the developing optic tectum that does not fire action potentials, despite receiving visually evoked glutamatergic and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synaptic inputs. A comparison of visually spiking and visually non-spiking neurons reveals that the principal reason these neurons are ‘silent’ is that they lack sufficient glutamatergic synaptic excitation. In the final section of the thesis, I investigate whether visually driven activity can play a role in the ‘unsilencing’ of these silent neurons. I show that non-spiking tectal neurons can be rapidly converted into spiking neurons through a visual conditioning protocol. This conversion is associated with a selective increase in glutamatergic input and implicates a novel, spike-independent form of synaptic potentiation. I provide evidence that this novel plasticity process is mediated by GABAergic inputs that are depolarising during early development, and can act in synergy with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) to strengthen immature glutamatergic synapses. Consistent with this, preventing the depolarising effects of GABA or blocking NMDARs abolished the activity-dependent unsilencing of tectal neurons. These results therefore support a model in which GABAergic and glutamatergic transmitter systems function synergistically to enable a neuron to recruit the synaptic excitation it needs to develop sensory-driven spiking activity. This represents a transition with important consequences for both the functional output and the activity-dependent development of a neuron.

Several studies reported training-induced improvements in executive function tasks and also observed transfer to untrained tasks. However, the results are mixed and there is a large interindividual variability within and across studies. Given that training-related performance changes would require modification, growth or differentiation at the cellular and synaptic level in the brain, research on critical moderators of brain plasticity potentially explaining such changes is needed. In the present study, a pre-post-follow-up design (N = 122) and a 3-weeks training of two response inhibition tasks (Go/NoGo and Stop-Signal) was employed and genetic variation (Val66Met) in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promoting differentiation and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity was examined. Because Serotonin (5-HT) signaling and the interplay of BDNF and 5-HT are known to critically mediate brain plasticity, genetic variation in the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) was also addressed. The overall results show that the kind of training (i.e., adaptive vs. non-adaptive) did not evoke genotype-dependent differences. However, in the Go/NoGo task, better inhibition performance (lower commission errors) were observed for BDNF Val/Val genotype carriers compared to Met-allele ones supporting similar findings from other cognitive tasks. Additionally, a gene-gene interaction suggests a more impulsive response pattern (faster responses accompanied by higher commission error rates) in homozygous l-allele carriers relative to those with the s-allele of 5-HTTLPR. This, however, is true only in the presence of the Met-allele of BDNF, while the Val/Val genotype seems to compensate for such non-adaptive responding. Intriguingly, similar results were obtained for the Stop-Signal task. Here, differences emerged at post-testing, while no differences were observed at T1. In sum, although no genotype-dependent differences between the relevant training groups emerged suggesting no changes in the trained inhibition function, the observed genotype-dependent performance changes from pre- to post measurement may reflect rapid learning or memory effects linked to BDNF and 5-HTTLPR. In line with ample evidence on BDNF and BDNF-5-HT system interactions to induce (rapid) plasticity especially in hippocampal regions and in response to environmental demands, the findings may reflect genotype-dependent differences in the acquisition and consolidation of task-relevant information, thereby facilitating a more adaptive responding to task-specific requirements.

Dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) have a key role in regulation of voluntary movement control. Their death is a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease, characterised by inhibited motor control, including muscle rigidity and tremor. Excitatory input to SNc-DA neurons is primarily from the subthalamic nucleus, and in PD these afferents display a higher frequency firing, as well as increased burst firing, which could cause increased excitatory activity in SNc-DA neurons. NMDA receptors (NMDARs) bind the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, and are essential for learning and memory. In SNc-DA neurons, NMDARs have a putative triheteromeric subunit arrangement of GluN1 plus GluN2B and/or GluN2D. Wild type (WT) mice, and those lacking the gene for GluN2D (Grin2D-null), were used to explore its role in various aspects of DA neuronal function and dysfunction using patch-clamp electrophysiology, viability assaying, and immunofluorescence. Pharmacological intervention using subunit-specific inhibitors ifenprodil and DQP-1105 on elicited NMDAR-EPSCs suggested a developmental shift from primarily GluN2B to GluN2B/D. Activity dependent regulation was assessed by high frequency burst stimulation of glutamatergic afferents: in comparison to controls, significant downregulation of NMDARs was observed in SNc-DA neurons, though no differences were observed based on genotype. This regulatory function may be a neuroprotective or homeostatic response. Ambient extracellular glutamate elicits tonic NMDAR activity in SNc-DA neurons, which may be important for maintaining basal levels of excitability: the role of GluN2D was assessed by recording the deflection in baseline current caused by application of competitive NMDAR antagonist D-AP5. There was a significantly larger NMDAR-mediated current in WT vs Grin2D-null mice, indicating that GluN2D has a role in binding ambient glutamate. Dysfunction of glutamate uptake could be a secondary pathophysiological occurrence in the SNc, leading to increased ambient glutamate: the effect of this was explored by application of the competitive glutamate transporter blocker TBOA. Here, the NMDAR-mediated portion of this current was significantly higher in WT mice in comparison to Grin2D-null. Interestingly, dose-response data obtained from bath application of NMDA showed significantly larger currents in Grin2D-null animals vs WT, but only at the top of the response curve (~1-10 mM), which may indicate a capability for larger conductance in Grin2D-null animals at high NMDAR saturation due to replacement of GluN2D with GluN2B. GluN2D may therefore be neuroprotective, by attenuating peak current flow in response to very high agonist concentrations. Lastly, GluN2D has been found to decrease NMDAR open probability under hypoxic conditions, potentially conferring resistance to hypoxia / ischemia related excitotoxicity. Therefore, low (15% O2 / 80% N2 / 5% CO2) vs high (95% O2 / 5% CO2) oxygen conditions were used along with immunofluorescent propidium iodide cell death assaying and immunofluorescent labeling for DA neurons in order to compare levels of DA neuronal death in the SNc based on oxygen status and genotype. Whilst there was a significant submaximal effect based on O2 status, genotype did not confer a practical resistance under these conditions. In summary, NMDARs have diverse roles in SNc-DA neurons which may both serve to maintain normal function and protect the cell against potentially pathological conditions.