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It is more than a decade that Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMCs) have been known as an exciting class of smart materials and attracted growing worldwide attention. IPMCs are soft and flexible, and can generate large and reversible strains in response to electrical stimulus. Thus, they have potential applications in industrial and biomedical fields, as actuators. Before these applications can be realized , however, the performance of IPMCs must be understood and improved through improvement of component characteristics and of preparation methods. In general, the aim of this thesis is to gain a fundamental understanding of the chemical and structural factors that affect the electromechanical performance of IPMCs. To this end, a multi-technique investigation is applied to correlate the electrochemical and electromechanical behavior of IPMCs, during operation, with their chemistry, microstructure and nanostructure. Researchers have suggested several plausible mechanical and mathematical models to reveal that ion transport occurs within IPMCs and that it is an important factor in their actuation performance. However, there is still a need for further experimental studies to help refine our understanding of the actuation mechanism of these materials. In this work, the powerful, non-invasive and non-destructive technique of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is employed to study the internal structure and water content distribution in Nafion membranes and also IPMCs. Moreover, MRI is also applied to image electrically-induced diffusion of ions with their associated water molecules in real time, in operating IPMC actuators. This forms the major part of this project and, to the best of our knowledge, it is the first recorded electrochemical experiment of this kind. The size and dimensions of IPMCs can affect their actuation performance. Thus, in this work, model IPMC actuators are prepared based on the available commercial Nafion membrane and fabricated cast Nafion membrane and their electromechanical behaviors are compared. The effect of parameters such as electrode composition and Nafion thickness on actuation behavior is also studied by measuring displacement and force generation of the IPMC actuators during actuation cycles. Simultaneous current and electrochemical measurements are made to correlate electrochemical processes with actuation behavior directly. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is also used to study the internal and surface structure of IPMCs.

Este trabalho trata do projeto de um novo modelo de porta ferramenta assistido para ser utilizado em usinagens de ultraprecisão. O projeto conceitual foi concebido utilizando definições e princípios de projeto de maquinas de ultraprecisão. Com o modelamento concluído teve início a fase de simulação em elementos finitos. Simulações estáticas feitas com os materiais utilizados na fabricação do PFA - alumínio AISI 7075 e aço SAE 1020 - vieram comprovar a eficiência deste modelo, no que diz respeito ao deslocamento sob ação da carga aplicada por um atuador piezelétrico com deslocamento de 30m. Simulações dinâmicas também vieram comprovar que o modelo opera com deslocamentos de 30m e frequências de até 700 Hz utilizando o material de construção do PFA Al 7075, com quase nenhuma histerese. Em paralelo, foi projetado um sistema de controle proporcional integral derivativo (PID) para corrigir o posicionamento da ferramenta ao longo de todo o deslocamento. A geração de formas de ondas do tipo senoidal, quadrada, triangular e dente de serra para o deslocamento servem de forma a proporcionar usinagens variadas com alta precisão de deslocamento. A validação consistiu de testes em bancada e usinagens em alumínio AISI 6100, com variação de formas de onda e deslocamentos. Os resultados mostraram que este projeto de PFA em conjunto com o projeto do sistema de controle PID atuou perfeitamente para usinagens até 15m com frequências de até 30Hz / This paper addresses the design of a new model of assisted toolholder to be used in ultraprecision machining. The conceptual design was conceived utilizing definitions and design principles of ultraprecision machines. Finite element was performed once the modeling was completed. Static simulations with the material used to manufacture the PFA (AISI 1020 steel and 7075 aluminum) have proved the efficiency of this model, with regard the displacement of the tool under the action of a load of a piezoelectric actuator. Also dynamic simulations have demonstrated that the model operates with 30m displacements and frequencies of 700Hz using Al 7075 material with almost no hysteresis. In parallel, a proportional integral derivative (PID) control system was designed to correct positioning of the tool throughout the entire range of displacements. Sinusoidal, square, triangular and saw tooth waveforms were generated as a means of validate the displacement of the PFA during the machining of various features using a high precision control system. The validation consisted of tests during the machining of 6100 aluminum, with a range of waveforms and displacements and non-machining tests with the same displacements and frequencies. The results showed that the PFA design together with the control system acted perfectly for amplitudes up to 15m with frequencies up to 30Hz.

Para se obter alto desempenho em máquinas-ferramenta de ultraprecisão, são necessários o desenvolvimento de sistemas de posicionamento e o controle de movimento, os quais não raramente devem operar com resolução e repetibilidade na faixa submicrométrica. A utilização das modernas técnicas de metodologia de projeto auxiliam no desenvolvimento deste tipo de sistema. Neste trabalho são discutidas e analisadas as diversas alternativas disponíveis para os elementos constituintes do sistema de posicionamento. Aspectos críticos como cinemática, acionamento, guias e apoios são estudados e confrontados usando o método de análise de valor. E baseados no resultado do estudo prévio, obtém-se um sistema híbrido para microposicionamento angular de alta rigidez e ampla largura de banda, capaz de posicionar uma superfície com resolução angular inferior a 4.\'10 POT.-5\' graus. Através das técnicas de modelagem, pode-se verificar a funcionalidade desse sistema projetado, quanto ao seu comportamento estático e dinâmico. Uma modelagem cinemática é apresentada com o objetivo de auxiliar na veracidade do projeto do posicionador angular, através da qual pretende-se observar a influência de cada ponto de apoio no posicionamento final. São apresentados os resultados obtidos em simulações numéricas, as quais constatam não só o próprio desempenho do posicionador, como também, a validade da técnica utilizada. / In order to achieve high performance in ultra-precision machine tools, appropriate capability is required of motion control and positioning systems which have to operate at resolutions and repeatability in the sub-micrometre range. Machining may reach high levels of precision through the use of suitable sensors, actuators and controllers so that the development of micro-positioner with low backlash, high bandwidth and accuracy is a crucial aspect of high precision machining technology. Modern design techniques can greatly assist in the development and design of such systems. In this work, several design options for the elements of a positioning system are discussed and analysed. Critical aspects such as kinematics, driving and bearings are studied and compared using the value analysis method. A hybrid system based upon the results of this study is proposed which combines the best characteristics of each design option. The system possesses the capability of positioning a workpiece and/or tool angularly and/or linearly (micro-tilt stage) with a resolution better than 4 \'10 POT.-5\' arc degree and high stiffness and bandwidth. Through modelling techniques, it is possible to verify the static and dynamic behaviour of the system. A kinematics model of the micro-tilt stage is presented in order to establish a relationship between the displacement of the actuators and the final position of the stage. It is anticipated that such an approach will be required in respect of interferometric feedback control. Simulations of the model are performed showing that the technique applied is valid and the system fulfils the requirements for ultra-precision design.

Esta dissertação apresenta o projeto e a construção de atuadores elásticos em série para o acionamento das juntas de um exoesqueleto para membros inferiores, baseado em uma órtese comercial. Inicialmente, considerou-se como dispositivo de testes a parte do exoesqueleto referente à junta do tornozelo, ou seja, a construção de uma órtese tornozelo-pé ativa. Atuadores elásticos em série são considerados neste trabalho, pois tais dispositivos apresentam características ideais para a sua utilização em órteses ativas: controle de força, controle de impedância (possibilidade de impedância baixa), absorção de impactos, baixo atrito e largura de banda que se aproxima da movimentação muscular. Um primeiro protótipo do atuador elástico em série foi construído e resultados experimentais de controle de força, impedância e posição foram obtidos com sucesso, através de uma interface de acionamento e controle entre o atuador, os sensores (encoders e sensores de força) e o computador. Também foi construída uma órtese tornozelo-pé ativa acionada pelo atuador elástico em série construído, sendo apresentados os primeiros resultados experimentais obtidos com este dispositivo. / This dissertation deals with the design and construction of series elastic actuators for driving the joints of an exoskeleton for lower limbs, based on a commercial orthosis. Initially, it was considered the construction of the exoskeleton\'s ankle joint, that is, the construction of an active ankle-foot orthosis. Series elastic actuators are considered in this work since these devices have ideal characteristics for use in active orthoses: force control, impedance control (possibility of low impedance), impact absorption, low friction and bandwidth that approximates the muscle movement. A first prototype of the series elastic actuator was constructed and experimental results of force, impedance, and position control were successfully obtained trough of a control interface between the actuators, the sensors (encoders and force sensors) and the computer. Also, an active ankle-foot orthosis, driven by the series elastic actuator, was constructed and the first experimental results achieved with this device are presented.

In this work a bio-inspired flapping actuator based on varied magnetic fields is developed, controlled and characterized. The actuator is sought to contribute to the toolbox of options for bio-mimetics research. The design is that of a neodymium bar magnet on one end of an armature which is moved by two air core electromagnetic coils in the same manner as agonist and antagonist muscle pairs function in biological systems. The other end of the armature is fitted to a rigid fin extending beyond the streamline enclosure body to produce propulsion. A series of tests in still water were performed to measure the kinematics and propulsive force for different control schemes including the effect of adding antagonistic resistance to the control schemes. Control methods based on armature position and based on setpoint error were tested and antagonist force was found to increase consistency of control of the systems in certain cases. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2016. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Este trabalho trata do projeto de um novo modelo de porta ferramenta assistido para ser utilizado em usinagens de ultraprecisão. O projeto conceitual foi concebido utilizando definições e princípios de projeto de maquinas de ultraprecisão. Com o modelamento concluído teve início a fase de simulação em elementos finitos. Simulações estáticas feitas com os materiais utilizados na fabricação do PFA - alumínio AISI 7075 e aço SAE 1020 - vieram comprovar a eficiência deste modelo, no que diz respeito ao deslocamento sob ação da carga aplicada por um atuador piezelétrico com deslocamento de 30m. Simulações dinâmicas também vieram comprovar que o modelo opera com deslocamentos de 30m e frequências de até 700 Hz utilizando o material de construção do PFA Al 7075, com quase nenhuma histerese. Em paralelo, foi projetado um sistema de controle proporcional integral derivativo (PID) para corrigir o posicionamento da ferramenta ao longo de todo o deslocamento. A geração de formas de ondas do tipo senoidal, quadrada, triangular e dente de serra para o deslocamento servem de forma a proporcionar usinagens variadas com alta precisão de deslocamento. A validação consistiu de testes em bancada e usinagens em alumínio AISI 6100, com variação de formas de onda e deslocamentos. Os resultados mostraram que este projeto de PFA em conjunto com o projeto do sistema de controle PID atuou perfeitamente para usinagens até 15m com frequências de até 30Hz / This paper addresses the design of a new model of assisted toolholder to be used in ultraprecision machining. The conceptual design was conceived utilizing definitions and design principles of ultraprecision machines. Finite element was performed once the modeling was completed. Static simulations with the material used to manufacture the PFA (AISI 1020 steel and 7075 aluminum) have proved the efficiency of this model, with regard the displacement of the tool under the action of a load of a piezoelectric actuator. Also dynamic simulations have demonstrated that the model operates with 30m displacements and frequencies of 700Hz using Al 7075 material with almost no hysteresis. In parallel, a proportional integral derivative (PID) control system was designed to correct positioning of the tool throughout the entire range of displacements. Sinusoidal, square, triangular and saw tooth waveforms were generated as a means of validate the displacement of the PFA during the machining of various features using a high precision control system. The validation consisted of tests during the machining of 6100 aluminum, with a range of waveforms and displacements and non-machining tests with the same displacements and frequencies. The results showed that the PFA design together with the control system acted perfectly for amplitudes up to 15m with frequencies up to 30Hz.

There is a growing interest in the field of Dielectric Elastomer Actuators (DEAs).A DEA consists of a thin DE lm coated with a compliant electrode. It expandsin planar directions and contracts in thickness under a driving voltage. Becauseof the similar actuation capability compared with human muscles, it is oftenreferred as artificial muscle. One possible application is to integrate the DEA inwearable devices for tremor suppression. In this thesis, the development of theDEA has been advanced towards this application in three aspects: performanceenhancement, modelling accuracy and self-sensing control. The results presented demonstrate that the combination of pre-strain and motion constraining enhances the force output of the DEA significantly but it also leads to the pre-mature electric breakdown that shortens the operational life. This drawback was suppressed by optimising the electrode configuration to avoid the electrically weak regions with low thickness across the DE lm, together with the lead contact o the active electrode region. The durability of the enhanced DEA was therefore improved significantly. Polyacrylate, a commonly used DE, was characterised for dynamic mechanical loading and electrical actuation. The conventional Kelvin-Voigt model was proved to be deficient in simulating the viscoelastic behaviour of polyacrylate in the frequency domain. The error in modelling was substantially reduced using a higher material model that contains multiple spring-damper combinations. It allows the system dynamics to be shaped over frequency ranges. A detailed procedure was given to guide the parameter identification in higher order material model. A novel self-sensing mechanism that does not require superposition of drivingvoltage and excitation signal was also designed. It reconfigures the conventionalDEA to have separate electrode regions for sensing and actuating. As the DElm deforms under driving voltage, the capacitive change in the electrode regionfor sensing was measured via a capacitor bridge and used as the feedback foractuation control. The self-sensing DEA can, therefore, be implemented with anyhigh voltage power supply. Moreover, the sensing performance is demonstratedto have improved consistency without interference of the electrical field. It alsohas a unique feature of DE lm wrinkling detection.

Trata do desenvolvimento de um porta-ferramenta translativo (PFT). Objetiva o microposicionamento relativo ferramenta/peça durante a usinagem de ultraprecisão, para atender à tolerâncias nanométricas. Define esse microposicionamento com o emprego de atuador piezelétrico. Mostra alguns aspectos de projeto aplicados à engenharia de precisão que foram usados no desenvolvimento do PFT. Relata as técnicas de controle aplicadas como PID e compensador por atraso de fase. Realiza uma análise para verificação dos modos de vibrar do PFT, identificando assim as freqüências naturais do sistema. Apresenta um modelo ideal, ou seja, todos os componentes foram fabricados e montados para a realização dos testes. Propõe que a estratégia de controle seja baseada em processar sinais adquiridos ao longo do microposicionamento da ferramenta para identificar a condição de posicionamento relativo ferramenta/peça e obter informações que foram posteriormente usadas em um controlador PID, para realimentação de posição. Conclui com a avaliação e testes experimentais de deslocamento da ferramenta de corte, até 25 &#956m; com freqüência, até 10 Hz, realizados com o PFT projetado. / This work deals with the development of a tool post (PFT) for the micropositioning of a tool during ultraprecision machining in the nanometric range. Micropositioning employing piezoelectric actuators is defined. Precision engineering designs aspects applied to the development of the PFT are discussed. Control techniques such as PID and phase-lag compensator are addressed. A computer simulation for the verification of the vibrating modes of the PFT, with the simultaneous identification of the natural frequencies is carried out. An ideal model - all components will be manufactured and assembled - is presented. A control strategy based on the processing of signals acquired during the micropositioning of the tool to identify the positioning condition and to obtain information to be used by a PID controller is proposed. Experimental tests are performed with displacement of the tool, up to 25 &#956m, with frequency, up to 10 Hz.

Atuadores Piezelétricos Flextensionais consistem de uma estrutura flexível atuada por cerâmicas piezelétricas (ou “pilhas” de cerâmicas). A estrutura flexível conectada a piezocerâmica deve gerar deslocamentos e forças em diferentes pontos específicos do domínio, para uma direção especificada. Estes atuadores são usados em aplicações de mecânica de precisão, tal como, sistemas microeletromecânicos (MEMS), manipulador de células, interferometria laser, equipamentos de nanotecnologia, equipamentos de microcirurgias, nanoposicionadores, sonda de varredura microscópica, e etc. Porém, devido ao fato destes atuadores consistirem principalmente de um mecanismo flexível, seu projeto é complexo. A estrutura flexível comporta-se como um transformador mecânico pela amplificação para converter, direcionar e amplificar os pequenos deslocamentos gerados pela piezocerâmica (ordem de nanômetros). A estrutura flexível é projetada distribuindo-se flexibilidade e rigidez no domínio de projeto, o que pode ser obtido usando a otimização topológica. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho é implementar um método sistemático baseado no método de otimização topológica para projetar atuadores piezelétricos flextensionais. Essencialmente, o método de otimização topológica consiste em encontrar a distribuição ótima de material perfurando o domínio de projeto com infinitos microfuros. O material em cada ponto pode alterar de vazio a total presença de material, também assumindo material intermediário (ou compósito). A implementação do método de otimização topológica é baseado no modelo de material SIMP (Simple Isotropic Material with Penalization). O problema de otimização é posto como a maximização dos deslocamentos gerados (ou força de blocagem) em diferentes pontos e direções especificadas do domínio. Considerando o comportamento linear da piezocerâmica. Alterando a flexibilidade e a rigidez da estrutura flexível conectada a piezocerâmica obtém-se diferentes tipos de atuadores piezelétricos flextensionais, que podem ser projetados para determinadas aplicações. Para ilustrar o método, os exemplos mostrados são modelos bidimensionais (2D), uma vez que a maior parte das aplicações envolve dispositivos planos. Estes atuadores são fabricados usando corrosão química em chapas de cobre abaixo de 200 μm de espessura através do método de litografia. Técnica de corrosão química tem um baixo custo e permite-nos fabricar diversos protótipos para testes. Esta técnica pode ser facilmente utilizada no LNLS (Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron – Campinas). Análise experimental destes protótipos são procedidas para medição de deslocamentos usando uma Probe Station. Como trabalho futuro, estes protótipos serão construídos em escala de MEMS. / Flextensional Piezoelectric Actuators consist of a flexible structure actuated by piezoelectric ceramics (or a stack of piezoceramics). The flexible structure connected to the piezoceramic must generate displacements and forces in different specified points of the domain, according to a specific direction. These actuators are applied to precision mechanic applications such as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), cell manipulators, laser interferometers, nanotechnology equipment, microsurgery equipment, nanopositioners, scanning probe microscopy, etc. However, due to the fact these actuators essentially consist of a compliant mechanism their design is complex. The compliant structure behaves as a mechanical transform by amplifying and changing the direction of small output displacements generated by piezoceramics (order of nanometer). The flexible structure is designed by distributing flexibility and stiffness in the design domain, which can be archieved by using topology optimization. Therefore, the objective of this work is to implement a systematic method based on topology optimization method to design flextensional piezoelectric actuators. Essentially, the topology optimization method consists of finding the optimal material distribution in a perforated design domain with infinite microvoids. The material in each point can change from void to full material, also assuming intermediate (or composite) material. The implemented topology optimization method is based on the SIMP (Simple Isotropic Material with Penalization) material model. The optimization problem is posed as maximization of output displacements (or grabbing forces) in different specified directions and points of the domain. A linear behavior of piezoceramic is considered. By changing the flexibility and stiffness of flexible structure connected to the piezoceramics different types of flextensional piezoelectric actuators can be designed for a desired application. To illustrate the method, examples presented herein are limited to two-dimensional (2D) models once in most part of applications of these actuators they are planar devices. These actuators are manufactured by using chemical corrosion on a 200 um thickness copper plate through lithography method. Chemical corrosion technique has a low cost and it allow us to manufacture several prototypes for testing. For this technique, facilities of the micromachining laboratory of National Sincroton Light Laboratory (LNLS - Campinas) are used. Experimental analysis of these prototypes are conducted by measuring displacements using a probe station. As a future work, these prototypes will be built in a MEMS scale.