Η Ανθεκτική στην Αναισθησία Μνήμη είναι ένας ιδιαίτερος τύπος μνήμης που προς το παρόν έχει χαρακτηριστεί μόνο στη Drosophila. Ελάχιστα είναι γνωστά για τον ρόλο της καθώς και για τα μόρια που παίζουν ρόλο στο σχηματισμό της. Στόχος της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι να διερευνήσει χρησιμοποιώντας τόσο συμπεριφορικά όσο και μοριακά εργαλία τον ρόλο της πρωτεΐνης προσαρμοστή DRK στην δημιουργία αυτού του ιδιαίτερου τύπου μνήμης. / Anesthesia Resistant Memory is a unique form of memory characterising Drosophila. Very few are known about its function and the molecules participating in its formation. The aim of this research is to examine the role of the adaptor protein DRK in the formation of Anesthesia Resitant Memory using both behavioural and molecular asseys.

Chlamydia trachomatis (C. trachomatis) is the most prevalent sexually transmitted bacteria with devastating reproductive consequences that lead to tubal factor infertility (TFI). Recent studies have implicated apoptosis – associated speck – like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC) as an adaptor of inflammasomes that stimulate IL – 1β and IL – 18 secretion, pro – inflammatory cytokines with critical functions in host defense against a variety of pathogens. Therefore, for the first time, we are reporting the use of ASC-/- mice in a mouse model of Chlamydia infection that might provide some information on the role of inflammasomes in the pathogenesis of Chlamydia infection. In this study, wild type (WT) and ASC-/- mice were infected with Chlamydia. Infectivity, pathology of the upper genital tract (UGT), and, fertility were evaluated. In addition, expression of ASC – dependent inflammasomes and the activation of immune cells within the genital tract (GT) were studied. Results showed that Chlamydia infectivity in ASC-/- mice was significantly higher (p-/- mice which, when compared to infected WT mice, was exhibited by decrease in average number of pups and percent pregnancy. There was also severe UGT damage in ASC-/- mice compared to WT mice, correlating with the higher number of hydrosalpinx observed on the UGT of Chlamydia infected ASC-/- mice. Furthermore, IL – 1β and IL – 18 production as well as immune cell activation were down regulated in the GT of Chlamydia infected ASC-/- mice. This finding indicates that in absence of ASC, host innate and adaptive immunity is impaired. Results imply that ASC plays a protective role in the mucosal immunity against GT Chlamydia infection.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O cÃncer colorretal (CCR) Ã uma das neoplasias mais prevalentes em todo o mundo, sendo uma das principais causas de Ãbito por cÃncer. Dentre as drogas utilizadas como primeira linha no tratamento do CCR e do CCR metastÃtico hepÃtico, o irinotecano apresenta destaque pelo impacto sobre o aumento da sobrevida dos pacientes. Contudo, o surgimento de efeitos colaterais associados ao irinotecano (IRI), como a mucosite intestinal (MI), tem impactado negativamente no curso terapÃutico do paciente, observando-se atrasos nos ciclos subsequentes de quimioterapia, reduÃÃo de doses e, por vezes, interrupÃÃo do tratamento. A MI e a diarrÃia grave sÃo efeitos colaterais frequentes que pode atingir de 15-25% dos pacientes em quimioterapia. Objetivos: Estudar os parÃmetros funcionais da barreira intestinal e os mecanismos envolvidos na mucosite intestinal induzida pelo Irinotecano e seu metabÃlito ativo, SN-38. MÃtodos: Camundongos C57BL/6 machos (WT), 20-25g, foram divididos em grupos (n=6-8), administrados por 4 dias com salina (5 mL/Kg, i.p) ou com irinotecano (IRI, 75 mg/Kg, i.p). Os animais foram analisados no 5Â dia [D5] ou 7Â dia [D7] quanto ao peso corpÃreo, escores de diarreia, contagem de leucÃcitos. ApÃs sacrifÃcio, uma amostra de intestino foi coletada para dosagem de mieloperoxidase, anÃlise histopatolÃgica, morfomÃtrica, e imunohistoquÃmica para TLR4. Adicionalmente, realizou-se o teste de permeabilidade e perfusÃo intestinal in vivo. Avaliou-se tambÃm a bacteremia e a translocaÃÃo bacteriana em linfonodo mesentÃrico e fÃgado. Em adiÃÃo, a participaÃÃo de receptores Toll-like 2 (TLR2), 4 (TLR4) e 9 (TLR9) da proteÃna adaptadora MyD88 e NOD1 na mucosite intestinal foi verificada pelo uso de camundongos knockout com deleÃÃo gÃnica especÃfica para aqueles receptores e seus respectivos camundongos selvagens (WT). Adicionalmente, realizou-se a avaliaÃÃo dos efeitos in vivo e in vitro do SN-38. Os dados foram analisados com ANOVA/teste de Bonferroni ou Kruskal Wallis/teste de Dunn. P<0,05 foi aceito. (Protocolo CEPA 99/10). Resultados: A injeÃÃo de IRI causou uma significativa (P<0,05) perda ponderal, leucopenia e diarreia, associada a um aumento da infiltraÃÃo de neutrÃfilos no jejuno, Ãleo e pulmÃo, com alteraÃÃes morfomÃtricas e uma intensa destruiÃÃo da arquitetura dos vilos e criptas, apoptose celular em camundongos WT versus animais injetados com salina. AlÃm disso, o IRI induz uma alteraÃÃo da barreira intestinal evidenciada pela diminuiÃÃo da excreÃÃo de lactulose, aliado a um aumento significativo (P<0,05) da secreÃÃo intestinal de sÃdio, potÃssio e cloreto. Os camundongos injetados com Irinotecano apresentaram bacteremia e translocaÃÃo bacteriana (P<0,05) no linfonodo mesentÃrico e fÃgado, quando comparados ao grupo salina. A identificaÃÃo bioquÃmica das bactÃrias translocadas evidenciou a presenÃa de Escherichia coli (75%), Citrobacter sp. (17,2%), BactÃrias Gram-Negativas NÃo-Fermentadoras e Pseudomona aeruginosa (18%) no grupo injetado com Irinotecano, aliado a um significativo aumento (P<0,05) da imunomarcaÃÃo para TLR4 no intestino de animais injetados com IRI D5 (4[3-4]) e D7 (4[3-4]) versus o grupo salina (1,5[1-4]). Observamos que a deleÃÃo gÃnica para o receptor TLR2 e a proteÃna adaptadora MyD88, mas nÃo para TLR4 ou TLR9, preveniram a perda ponderal e o dano funcional, relacionado aos eventos de diarreia, bem como as alteraÃÃes morfomÃtricas, histopatolÃgicas, infiltraÃÃo de neutrÃfilos e bacteremia induzida pelo Irinotecano versus o grupo WT injetado com IRI (P<0,05). Entretanto, a deficiÃncia genÃtica de NOD1 conferiu uma reduzida diarreia, sem reverter o dano prÃ-inflamatÃrio induzido pelo IRI. Adicionalmente, o SN-38 causou um aumento da atividade de mieloperoxidase (P<0,05), sem alterar a secreÃÃo intestinal na alÃa isolada de camundongos (P>0.05) versus o grupo injetado com salina. O SN38 foi capaz de induzir alteraÃÃes morfolÃgicas nas cÃlulas intestinais de ratos (IEC-6). ConclusÃo: O IRI induziu alteraÃÃo dos parÃmetros funcionais, detectadas pelo teste de permeabilidade e de perfusÃo intestinal. O IRI induziu uma bacteremia e translocaÃÃo bacteriana para ÃrgÃos perifÃricos. AlÃm disso, a deficiÃncia do receptor Toll-like do tipo 2, e da proteÃna MyD88 previniu o dano intestinal e a diarreia induzida pelo IRI. Contudo, a deficiÃncia de receptores NOD1 somente melhorou a diarreia. Adicionalmente, o SN38 foi associado a um aumento da infiltraÃÃo de neutrÃfilo, sem alteraÃÃo da secreÃÃo intestinal no modelo de alÃa isolada. / The Colorectal Cancer (CRC) is one of the most prevalent neoplastic diseases in the world and is one leading cause of death. Irinotecan is a drug used as first line treatment for CRC and its liver metastases and has markedly improved the overall survival of patients. However, irinotecan-related side-effects, which include intestinal mucositis (IM), have impacted negatively on therapeutic outcome, leading to delayed chemotherapy cycles, dose reductions and treatment interruption. IM and life-threatening diarrhea may affect up to 15-25% of patients under irinotecan-based cancer chemotherapy regimens. Aims: To study the intestinal barrier function and the mechanisms involved in the IM induced by irinotecan and its active metabolite, SN-38. Methods: Male C57BL/6 mice (WT, n=6-8) were divided into groups and injected with saline (5 mL/kg, i.p.) or irinotecan (IRI, 75 mg/kg, i.p.) for 4 days. Body weight, diarrhea and blood leukocyte count were assessed on days 5 [D5] and 7 [D7]. Following euthanasia, intestinal samples were collected for histopathology, morphometry, mieloperoxidase and imunohistochemistry assays. In addition, in vivo intestinal permeability and perfusion tests were performed. Bacteremia and bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph node and liver were further carried out. Additionally, the participation of toll-like receptors 2 (TLR2), 4 (TLR4) and 9 (TLR9), the adaptor protein MyD88 and NOD1 receptor in the pathogenesis of IM were investigated by the use of WT mice and knockout with target gene disruptions. Furthermore, the in vivo and in vitro effects of SN-38 were studied. Data analysis was performed with ANOVA/Bonferroniâs test or Kruskal Wallis/Dunnâs test. P<0,05 was accepted. (CEPA 99/10). Results. IRI-injected WT mice presented a marked (P<0.05) weight loss, leukopenia, diarrhea, increased neutrophil infiltration in lung, jejunum, ileum associated with villi and crypt morphologic alteration and apoptotic cell death versus saline-administered mice. Besides, reduced lactulose renal excretion, gut secretion of sodium, potassium and chloride evidenced intestinal barrier dysfunction in IRI-injected WT mice versus saline-administered control mice (P<0.05). Bacterermia and bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph node and liver were also observed in the IRI group. Biochemical identification of translocating bacteria revealed the presence of Escherichia coli (75%), Citrobacter sp. (17.2%), non-fermenting gram-negative bactÃria and Pseudomona aeruginosa (18%) in blood samples of IRI-injected mice. In addition, an increased TLR4 imunoexpression was detected in that group (IRI D5: 4[3-4] and D7: 4[3-4]) when compared with saline control (1.5[1-4]). Gene deletion to TLR2 and MyD88, but not to TLR4 or TLR9, prevented weight loss, diarrhea, intestinal morphometric alterations, neutrophil infiltration in the gut and bacteremia development versus the IRI-injeted WT group (P<0.05). However, NOD1 deletion was protective only against IRI-induced diarrhea without affecting the inflammatory infiltration. Furthermore, SN-38 promoted a marked neutrophil infiltration in ileum loops (P<0.05) but did not induce intestinal secretion of liquids (P>0.05) versus saline injected mice. Besides, cultured intestinal cells (IEC-6) incubated with SN-38 presented morphological changes in comparison to DMEN-cultured cells. Conclusions: IRI induced functional alterations in the gut and also bacteremia and bacterial translocation to peripheral organs. TLR2 and MyD88 deficiency prevented IRI-related intestinal damage and the diarrhea. However, NOD1 deficiency was protective only against diarrhea development. In addition, SN-38 might be responsible for the intestinal inflammatory reaction without affecting gut secretion of liquids.

No description available.

The process of HIV-1 particle production is a multi-step process directed by the viral structural protein Gag. As Gag is the only viral protein required to form virus-like particles, it presents a viable target for anti-viral therapeutics of which there are currently none. Although the functions of Gag during the particle assembly process have been well characterized, one of the least known parts of the assembly process is how Gag is targeted to the site of virus assembly. Two main virus assembly sites have been identified in cells that support HIV-1 replication: the plasma membrane or multivesicular bodies (MVBs). However the mechanism by which Gag is targeted to either of these sites remains unknown. The δ subunit of Adaptor Protein Complex 3 has previously been identified as a cellular co-factor for HIV-1 Gag and was reported to mediate Gag trafficking to MVBs, providing a mechanism for Gag targeting to this assembly site. Additionally, AP-3δ was reported to be required for HIV-1 production, suggesting that Gag to MVB targeting is also required for HIV-1 production. The work presented in this thesis further investigates the role of AP-3δ in Gag trafficking to MVBs and its role in HIV-1 production in previously unexplored host environments. Through the use of RNA interference-mediated depletion of AP-3δ, we determined that AP-3δ is dispensible for virus replication in infected HeLa cells, chronically infected HeLa-LAV cells and infected primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. We concomitantly disrupted AP-3 function by disrupting its association with membranes and observed no effect on virus production. Collectively, these results demonstrate that AP-3δ is not required for HIV-1 replication. However, AP-3δ was demonstrated to be required for Gag targeting to MVBs thus presenting a new model for the function of AP-3δ in the context of HIV-1 replication.

Dans les cellules eucaryotes, le trafic intracellulaire de nombreuses protéines est assuré par des vésicules de transport tapissées de clathrine. Les complexes adaptateurs de clathrine (AP) sont responsables de l’assemblage de ces vésicules et de la sélection des protéines qui seront transportées. Nous avons étudié cinq familles atteintes du syndrome neurocutané MEDNIK qui est caractérisé par un retard mental, une entéropathie, une surdité, une neuropathie périphérique, de l’icthyose et de la kératodermie. Tous les cas connus de cette maladie à transmission autosomique récessive sont originaires de la région de Kamouraska, dans la province de Québec. Par séquençage direct des gènes candidats, nous avons identifié une mutation impliquant le site accepteur de l’épissage de l’intron 2 du gène codant pour la sous-unité σ1 du complexe AP1 (AP1S1). Cette mutation fondatrice a été retrouvée chez tous les individus atteints du syndrome MEDNIK et altère l’épissage normal du gène, menant à un codon stop prématuré. Afin de valider l’effet pathogène de la mutation, nous avons bloqué la traduction de cette protéine chez le poisson zébré en injectant une séquence d’oligonucléotides antisenses spécifique à AP1S1. À 48 heures après la fertilisation, les larves knock down pour AP1S1 montrent une réduction de la pigmentation, une désorganisation de la structure de l’épiderme et une perturbation du développement moteur. Alors que la surexpression de l’AP1S1 humain dans ce modèle a permis la récupération du phénotype normal, l’expression de l’AP1S1 mutant fut sans effet sur les phénotypes moteurs et cutanés des larves knock down. Les résultats obtenus montrent que la mutation du AP1S1 responsable du syndrome de MEDNIK est associée à une perte de fonction et que la sous-unité σ1 du complexe AP1 joue un rôle crucial dans l’organisation de l’épiderme et le développement de la moelle épinière. / Intracellular protein transport between organelles is mainly mediated by clathrin coated vesicles. Clathrin adaptor protein (AP) complexes participate in clathrin coated vesicle formation and in sorting protein cargo. We studied 5 families with MEDNIK syndrome, which is characterized by mental retardation, enteropathy, deafness, neuropathy, ichtyosis and keratoderma. All families affected with this autosomal recessive syndrome originate from an isolated population in the Kamouraska region of Quebec. The candidate genes identified in the positive region were sequenced and a founder mutation was identified in the acceptor splice slice of intron 2 of the AP1S1 gene. This gene encodes for the small subunit σ1 of the complex adaptor 1 (AP1). This splicing mutation leads to a premature stop codon, which is predicted to alter the normal function of this protein. To validate the pathogenic effect of this mutation we blocked the AP1S1 protein translation in zebrafish by injecting an anti-sense oligonucleotide designed against AP1S1. At 48 hours post fertilisation, the knockdown larvae showed reduced pigmentation, perturbation of skin formation, and severe perturbation of motor development and function motor development. Over expression of the human AP1S1 rescued the normal phenotype whereas the expression of the mutant AP1S1 did not. These results show that this mutation is causative for MEDNIK syndrome and demonstrates a critical role of the small subunit σ1 in epidermal organisation and in the development of the spinal cord.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is a process by which cells can internalise diverse molecules such as nutrients, antigens and signalling-surface receptors. The creation of clathrin-coated vesicles demands interplay between the plasma membrane lipids, cargo molecules and the proteins that build up the coat. This thesis deals with the identification and characterisation of sorting nexin 9 (SNX9) as a novel component of the endocytic machinery. SNX9 belongs to a large family of proteins based on the presence of a PX domain. In addition, SNX9 harbours an SH3 domain followed by a region with predicted low-complexity and a C-terminal BAR homology domain. Binding studies demonstrated that SNX9 interacted with the endocytic core components clathrin and AP-2 and dynamin-2, a GTPase known to be crucial for vesicle scission. The C-terminal region bound to phosphatidylinositols and targeted SNX9 to artificial liposomes and cellular membranes. Consistent with a role in endocytosis, a large portion of SNX9 co-localised with AP-2 and dynamin-2 but not with markers for early endosomes, Golgi. Over-expression of truncated variants of SNX9 in K562 and HeLa cells interfered with the uptake of transferrin. SNX9 recycles between a membrane-bound and a cytosolic pool. In cytosol, SNX9 formed a resting complex together with dynamin-2 and the metabolic enzyme aldolase. Activation for membrane binding involved ATP hydrolysis and correlated with phosphorylation of SNX9 and the release of aldolase. Aldolase bound to a tryptophan-containing acidic region near the clathrin and AP-2 motifs and blocked lipid binding of purified SNX9 derivatives. SNX9 was required for membrane targeting of dynamin2 in vitro and knockdown of SNX9 in HeLa cells by RNAi resulted in impaired membrane localisation. Together these results argue strongly for a role of SNX9 in recruiting and linking of dynamin-2 to sites of vesicle creation.

Regulated secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes and other biologically active molecules requires formation of secretory granules. However, the molecular machinery required for secretory granule biogenesis is incompletely understood. I used powerful genetic approaches available in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster to investigate the factors required for biogenesis of mucin-containing ‘glue granules,’ which form within epithelial cells of the third-instar larval salivary gland. I discovered that clathrin and the clathrin adaptor protein complex (AP-1), as well the enzyme type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KII), are indispensable for glue granule biogenesis. Clathrin and AP-1 are necessary for maturation of exocrine, endocrine and neuroendocrine secretory granules in mammalian cells. I found that Drosophila clathrin and AP-1 colocalize at the TGN and that clathrin recruitment requires AP-1. I further showed that clathrin and AP-1 colocalize with secretory cargo at the TGN and on glue granules. Finally, I demonstrated that loss of clathrin or AP-1 leads to a profound block in secretory granule biogenesis. These findings establish a novel role for AP-1/clathrin-dependent trafficking in the formation of mucin-containing secretory granules. Type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KII) generates the membrane lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) at the trans-Golgi network and is required to recruit cargo to endosomes in mammalian cells. I generated null mutations in the sole Drosophila PI4KII and demonstrated a role for PI4KII in both glue granule and pigment granule biogenesis. PI4KII mutant salivary gland cells exhibit small glue granules and mislocalize glue protein to abnormally large late endosomes. Additionally, PI4KII mutants exhibit altered distribution of the granule specific SNARE, SNAP-24. These data point to a crucial role for PI4KII in sorting of regulated secretory products during granule biogenesis. Together, my results indicate that the larval salivary gland is a valuable system for investigating molecular mechanisms involved in secretory granule biogenesis, and provide a framework for future studies using this system.

Dans les cellules eucaryotes, le trafic intracellulaire de nombreuses protéines est assuré par des vésicules de transport tapissées de clathrine. Les complexes adaptateurs de clathrine (AP) sont responsables de l’assemblage de ces vésicules et de la sélection des protéines qui seront transportées. Nous avons étudié cinq familles atteintes du syndrome neurocutané MEDNIK qui est caractérisé par un retard mental, une entéropathie, une surdité, une neuropathie périphérique, de l’icthyose et de la kératodermie. Tous les cas connus de cette maladie à transmission autosomique récessive sont originaires de la région de Kamouraska, dans la province de Québec. Par séquençage direct des gènes candidats, nous avons identifié une mutation impliquant le site accepteur de l’épissage de l’intron 2 du gène codant pour la sous-unité σ1 du complexe AP1 (AP1S1). Cette mutation fondatrice a été retrouvée chez tous les individus atteints du syndrome MEDNIK et altère l’épissage normal du gène, menant à un codon stop prématuré. Afin de valider l’effet pathogène de la mutation, nous avons bloqué la traduction de cette protéine chez le poisson zébré en injectant une séquence d’oligonucléotides antisenses spécifique à AP1S1. À 48 heures après la fertilisation, les larves knock down pour AP1S1 montrent une réduction de la pigmentation, une désorganisation de la structure de l’épiderme et une perturbation du développement moteur. Alors que la surexpression de l’AP1S1 humain dans ce modèle a permis la récupération du phénotype normal, l’expression de l’AP1S1 mutant fut sans effet sur les phénotypes moteurs et cutanés des larves knock down. Les résultats obtenus montrent que la mutation du AP1S1 responsable du syndrome de MEDNIK est associée à une perte de fonction et que la sous-unité σ1 du complexe AP1 joue un rôle crucial dans l’organisation de l’épiderme et le développement de la moelle épinière. / Intracellular protein transport between organelles is mainly mediated by clathrin coated vesicles. Clathrin adaptor protein (AP) complexes participate in clathrin coated vesicle formation and in sorting protein cargo. We studied 5 families with MEDNIK syndrome, which is characterized by mental retardation, enteropathy, deafness, neuropathy, ichtyosis and keratoderma. All families affected with this autosomal recessive syndrome originate from an isolated population in the Kamouraska region of Quebec. The candidate genes identified in the positive region were sequenced and a founder mutation was identified in the acceptor splice slice of intron 2 of the AP1S1 gene. This gene encodes for the small subunit σ1 of the complex adaptor 1 (AP1). This splicing mutation leads to a premature stop codon, which is predicted to alter the normal function of this protein. To validate the pathogenic effect of this mutation we blocked the AP1S1 protein translation in zebrafish by injecting an anti-sense oligonucleotide designed against AP1S1. At 48 hours post fertilisation, the knockdown larvae showed reduced pigmentation, perturbation of skin formation, and severe perturbation of motor development and function motor development. Over expression of the human AP1S1 rescued the normal phenotype whereas the expression of the mutant AP1S1 did not. These results show that this mutation is causative for MEDNIK syndrome and demonstrates a critical role of the small subunit σ1 in epidermal organisation and in the development of the spinal cord.

Regulated secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes and other biologically active molecules requires formation of secretory granules. However, the molecular machinery required for secretory granule biogenesis is incompletely understood. I used powerful genetic approaches available in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster to investigate the factors required for biogenesis of mucin-containing ‘glue granules,’ which form within epithelial cells of the third-instar larval salivary gland. I discovered that clathrin and the clathrin adaptor protein complex (AP-1), as well the enzyme type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KII), are indispensable for glue granule biogenesis. Clathrin and AP-1 are necessary for maturation of exocrine, endocrine and neuroendocrine secretory granules in mammalian cells. I found that Drosophila clathrin and AP-1 colocalize at the TGN and that clathrin recruitment requires AP-1. I further showed that clathrin and AP-1 colocalize with secretory cargo at the TGN and on glue granules. Finally, I demonstrated that loss of clathrin or AP-1 leads to a profound block in secretory granule biogenesis. These findings establish a novel role for AP-1/clathrin-dependent trafficking in the formation of mucin-containing secretory granules. Type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KII) generates the membrane lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) at the trans-Golgi network and is required to recruit cargo to endosomes in mammalian cells. I generated null mutations in the sole Drosophila PI4KII and demonstrated a role for PI4KII in both glue granule and pigment granule biogenesis. PI4KII mutant salivary gland cells exhibit small glue granules and mislocalize glue protein to abnormally large late endosomes. Additionally, PI4KII mutants exhibit altered distribution of the granule specific SNARE, SNAP-24. These data point to a crucial role for PI4KII in sorting of regulated secretory products during granule biogenesis. Together, my results indicate that the larval salivary gland is a valuable system for investigating molecular mechanisms involved in secretory granule biogenesis, and provide a framework for future studies using this system.