Influenza Viren stellen eine große Bedrohung der öffentlichen Gesundheit dar. Die saisonale Grippeschutzimpfung induziert Antikörper gegen den Kopfbereich des viralen Oberflächenproteins Hämagglutinin (HA), in dem verstärkt Antigendrift auftritt. Dadurch wird die Effektivität der saisonalen Grippeimpfung auf den Impfstamm beschränkt und es besteht kein ausreichender Schutz gegen virale Driftvarianten. Eine universellere Grippeimpfung wird dringend benötigt. Die Entdeckung breit reaktiver Antikörper gegen den konservierten HA-Stammbereich hat die Erforschung neuartiger Impfstrategien vorangetrieben. Mit Chimären oder Headless HA kann eine Fokussierung der Immunantwort auf immunsubdominante Bereiche im HA-Stammbereich erzielt werden. Auch innovative Impfstoffplattformen wie Adeno-assoziierte Virus (AAV)-Vektoren bergen ein immenses Potenzial, da sie zum einen für die Verwendung im Menschen zugelassen sind und zum anderen die Immunogenität des Antigens positiv beeinflusst. Die Immunisierung mit AAV-Vektoren, die wildtypisches HA, Chimäre HA oder Nukleoprotein exprimieren, führte in dieser Arbeit in Mäusen zur Induktion breit reaktiver Antikörper, nicht aber die Immunisierung mit AAV-Headless HA oder inaktiviertem Grippeimpfstoff. Die AAV-Vektor Impfstoffe führten zur robusten Induktion Fc-Gamma-Rezeptor-aktivierender Antikörper, die beispielsweise Antikörper-vermittelte zelluläre Zytotoxizität auslösen können. Nicht nur die Impfung mit AAV-Chimären HA, sondern auch mit AAV-wildtypischem HA induzierte Antikörper gegen den HA-Stammbereich. Somit kann anscheinend allein durch eine AAV-Vektor vermittelte Expression des Antigens die Immundominanz des HA-Kopfbereiches abgemildert werden. Abschließend konnte zum ersten Mal die Schutzwirkung einer AAV-Vektor Immunisierung gegen HA im Frettchen demonstriert werden. Die in dieser Arbeit beschriebenen Ergebnisse zeigen somit das große Potenzial von AAV-Vektoren als Impfvehikel für eine breit reaktive Grippeschutzimpfung auf. / Influenza viruses represent a severe threat to public health. A seasonal vaccine is available, which readily leads to the induction of antibodies against the head domain of the viral surface protein hemagglutinin (HA), which is prone to antigenic drift. Thus, seasonal vaccination induces only strain specific protection, while it is not effective against drifted virus strains. Hence, there is an urgent need for a universal influenza vaccine. The discovery of broadly reactive antibodies against the highly conserved HA-stalk domain has prompted great interest into research on vaccination strategies to induce broadly protective HA antibodies. Chimeric and headless HA have shown promising results with respect to re-focusing immunity towards immunosubdominant epitopes in the HA-stalk to induce protective HA-stalk antibodies. Also, innovative vaccine delivery platforms such as Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-vectors offer an attractive developmental perspective. AAV-vectors are licensed for use in humans and the AAV-vectored antigen expression positively influences its immunogenicity. In this thesis, immunization with AAV-vectors expressing wildtype HA, chimeric HA or nucleoprotein induced broad protection in mice, but not vaccination with AAV-vectors expressing headless HA or an inactivated influenza vaccine. Protection was associated with the ability of the AAV-vectored vaccines to induce Fc-gamma-receptor-activating antibodies, which might activate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Not only chimeric HA but also wildtype HA induced antibodies against the HA-stalk, suggesting that AAV-vectored antigen expression can mitigate the immunodominance of virus strain-specific epitopes in the HA-head. Importantly, for the first time a protective effect AAV-vectored immunization towards HA could be shown in ferrets. Thus, results described in this thesis suggest a large potential for the development of AAV-vectors as carriers for a broadly protective influenza vaccine.

No description available.

Neste estudo foi verificado que a hipófise de S. brasiliensis era composta por dois tecidos, a neuro hipófise (NH) e a adeno-hipófise (AH). Nesta última, foram distinguidos sete tipos celulares. Na RPD foram detectadas as células adrenocorticotrópicas e prolactínicas, na PPD as células gonadotrópicas, somatotrópicas e tireotrópicas, e na PI, as células melanotrópicas e somatolactínicas. Foi evidenciada única célula gonadotrópica, produtora de LH e FSH. O primórdio da hipófise foi detectado 12 horas após a eclosão (hpe), a NH com 72 hpe e o início da formação do pedúnculo com 300 hpe. Nos juvenis (600 hpe), a hipófise apresentou uma morfologia semelhante àquela observada nos adultos. As células prolactínicas foram detectadas com 12 hpe, juntamente com as células adrenocorticotrópicas e melanotrópicas, seguidas das somatotrópicas e somatolactínicas, com 36 hpe. Por outro lado, nas larvas e juvenis foram detectadas duas populações distintas de células gonadotrópicas, as células produtoras de FSH foram detectadas com 600 hpe, enquanto as produtoras de LH com 120 hpe. / This study showed that the pituitary gland of S. brasiliensis was formed by two tissues, neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis. In the latter, seven cell types were distinguished. In RPD, prolactin and adrenocorticotropic cells were present. In PPD, gonadotropic, somatotrope and thyrotropic cells were detected, and in PI, somatolactin and melanotropic cells were found. Interestingly, was detected a single gonadotropic cell responsible for producing both gonadotropins. The primordium of the pituitary gland was detected 12 hours after hatching (hah), the neurohypophysis was detected 72 hah and formation of the stalk 300 hah. In juveniles, 600 hah, the pituitary showed a similar morphology to that observed in adults of this species. Prolactin cells were detected 12 hah together with adrenocorticotropic and melanotropic cells, followed by somatotropic and somatolactin cells 36 hah. Unlike adults, larvae and juveniles have shown two distinct populations of gonadotropic cells. FSH-producing cells were detected 600 hah, while LH-producing cells were detected 120 hah.

Les avancées récentes dans la technique de transgénèse utilisant l’approche AAV ont permis de générer de nouveaux modèles animaux. Depuis quelques années, le développement des modèles de la maladie de Parkinson (MP) a amélioré la compréhension des mécanismes physiopathologiques de ce trouble dégénératif. Cependant, aucun modèle mammifère ne reproduit à ce jour la neurodégénérescence liée à l’âge associée à la pathologie synucléine et la symptomatologie motrice et non motrice. L’objectif de mon travail de thèse fut de développer de nouvelles stratégies de transgénèse chez le rat en utilisant ces vecteurs viraux pour la modélisation de la MP. Le challenge est de parvenir à une infection virale la plus précoce possible afin de transduire un maximum de neurones dopaminergiques. Pour cela, différentes voies d’approche ont été testées pour améliorer le processus de transgénèse : 1) l’injection de vecteurs viraux dans le rete testis de jeunes mâles pour transduire les cellules de la lignée germinale, 2) l’injection dans les embryons pré-implantatoires, 3) l’injection in utero intracérébroventriculaire et enfin 4) l’injection intracardiaque au premier jour de vie des animaux. Parmi elles, les injections in utero et intracardiaques ont permis d’aboutir à une transduction importante d’un grand nombre de structures cérébrales avec un tropisme neuronal. Ces techniques ouvrent la voie à la génération de nouveaux modèles animaux de maladies à composante génétique et à la thérapie génique. / Recent advances in the transgenesis technique using the AAV approach have led to the generation of new animal models. In recent years, the development of models of Parkinson's disease (PD) has improved understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of this degenerative pathology. However, no mammalian model recapitulates the required age-dependant parkinsonian degeneration, the α-synuclein inclusion pathology and motor and non-motor symptoms. The objective of my Ph.D work was to develop new transgenesis strategies in rats using these viral vectors for modeling PD. The challenge is to achieve a viral infection as early as possible in order to transduce as many dopaminergic neurons as possible. To this end, different strategies have been tested to improve transgenesis efficacy : i) injection in rete testis in young male to transduce germinal cells, ii) injection into early stage embryos, iii) in utero intracerebroventricular injection and iv) intracardiac injection in one day-old animals. Among them, in utero and intracardiac injections led to neuronal transgene expression in most regions of the brain. These techniques pave the way for the generation of new animal models of genetic diseases and offer unique opportunities for gene therapy.

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a lethal autosomal recessive genetic disorder caused by mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. CFTR transports anions at the apical surface of epithelial membranes and functions in many areas of the body. However in CF, loss of CFTR function in the lungs is the major source of morbidity and mortality. Replacing the defective CFTR in the lungs through gene therapy has the potential to cure the disease. Recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) is an effective gene transfer vector and has been used extensively to deliver genes to cells in culture. A number of clinical trials using AAV have been attempted for a variety of diseases, including CF, albeit with limited success. Poor vector transduction efficiency prevents effective gene therapy. We have previously used a technique to greatly increase the transduction efficiency of AAV in human lung tissues by selecting from a library of AAVs using a directed evolution technique. However, this evolution was performed in cultured cells and did not fully represent the in vivo environment in which the AAV would be used. In 2008, a CF pig model was developed to develop a further understanding of the mechanisms of CF and CFTR function. We hypothesized that we could use directed evolution to select for a vector in vivo using the pig, allowing gene therapy studies to be conducted in a physiologically relevant model of CF. We selected a novel AAV variant, called AAV2H22, which is closely related to AAV2 but with greatly increased transduction efficiency in pig airway epithelia. AAV2H22 displayed specific tropism for pig airway epithelia and saturated cell surface receptors, indicating specific binding in those cells. We found that AAV2H22-mediated gene transfer corrected chloride and bicarbonate transport defects both in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, bicarbonate transport was sufficient to normalize pH in the airway surface liquid, resulting in increased bacterial killing likely due to increased activity of antimicrobial peptides. To investigate the mechanics of the increased transduction of AAV2H22, capsid mutants were assayed for transduction efficiency. Two of the five amino acid differences between AAV2 and AAV2H22 lie at the surface and are predicted to alter capsid binding. This is consistent with the results showing specific binding in cultured airway epithelia. This research has important implications for gene therapy and investigations using AAV2H22 will increase our understanding of the biology needed to successfully treat CF.

No description available.

Neste estudo foi verificado que a hipófise de S. brasiliensis era composta por dois tecidos, a neuro hipófise (NH) e a adeno-hipófise (AH). Nesta última, foram distinguidos sete tipos celulares. Na RPD foram detectadas as células adrenocorticotrópicas e prolactínicas, na PPD as células gonadotrópicas, somatotrópicas e tireotrópicas, e na PI, as células melanotrópicas e somatolactínicas. Foi evidenciada única célula gonadotrópica, produtora de LH e FSH. O primórdio da hipófise foi detectado 12 horas após a eclosão (hpe), a NH com 72 hpe e o início da formação do pedúnculo com 300 hpe. Nos juvenis (600 hpe), a hipófise apresentou uma morfologia semelhante àquela observada nos adultos. As células prolactínicas foram detectadas com 12 hpe, juntamente com as células adrenocorticotrópicas e melanotrópicas, seguidas das somatotrópicas e somatolactínicas, com 36 hpe. Por outro lado, nas larvas e juvenis foram detectadas duas populações distintas de células gonadotrópicas, as células produtoras de FSH foram detectadas com 600 hpe, enquanto as produtoras de LH com 120 hpe. / This study showed that the pituitary gland of S. brasiliensis was formed by two tissues, neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis. In the latter, seven cell types were distinguished. In RPD, prolactin and adrenocorticotropic cells were present. In PPD, gonadotropic, somatotrope and thyrotropic cells were detected, and in PI, somatolactin and melanotropic cells were found. Interestingly, was detected a single gonadotropic cell responsible for producing both gonadotropins. The primordium of the pituitary gland was detected 12 hours after hatching (hah), the neurohypophysis was detected 72 hah and formation of the stalk 300 hah. In juveniles, 600 hah, the pituitary showed a similar morphology to that observed in adults of this species. Prolactin cells were detected 12 hah together with adrenocorticotropic and melanotropic cells, followed by somatotropic and somatolactin cells 36 hah. Unlike adults, larvae and juveniles have shown two distinct populations of gonadotropic cells. FSH-producing cells were detected 600 hah, while LH-producing cells were detected 120 hah.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), first characterized in the early 20th century, is a common form of dementia which can occur as a result of genetic mutations in the genes encoding presenilin 1, presenilin 2, or amyloid precursor protein (APP). These genetic alterations can accelerate the pathological characteristics of AD, including the formation of extracellular neuritic plaques composed of amyloid beta peptides and the formation of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles consisting of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Ultimately, AD results in gross neuron loss in the brain which is evidenced clinically as a progressive decline in mental capacity. A strong body of scientific evidence has previously demonstrated that the driving factor in the pathogenesis of AD is potentially the accumulation of Aß peptides in the brain. Thus, reduction of Aß deposition is a major therapeutic strategy in the treatment of AD. Recently it has been suggested that Aß accumulation in the brain is modulated, not only by Aß production, but also by its degradation. Several important studies have demonstrated that Aß degradation is modulated by several endogenous zinc metalloproteases shown to have amyloid degrading capabilities. These endogenous proteases include neprilysin (NEP), endothelin converting enzyme (ECE), insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) and matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP9). In this investigation we study the effects of upregulating expression of several of these proteases through administration of recombinant adeno-associated viral vector (rAAV) containing both endogenous and synthetic genes for ECE and NEP on amyloid deposition in amyloid precursor protein (APP) plus presenilin-1 (PS1) transgenic mice. rAAV administration directly into the brain resulted in increased expression of ECE and NEP and a substantial decrease in amyloid pathology. We were able to significantly increase the area of viral distribution by using novel delivery methods resulting in increased gene expression and distribution. These data support great potential of gene therapy as a method of treatment for neurological diseases. Optimization of gene transfer methods aimed at a particular cell type and brain region in the CNS can be accomplished using AAV serotype specificity and novel delivery techniques leading to successful gene transduction thus providing a promising therapeutic avenue through which to treat AD.

Les astrocytes sont des éléments clés de la physiologie cérébrale. Dans les maladies neurodégénératives comme la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA), les astrocytes deviennent réactifs. Cette réactivité astrocytaire (RA) est essentiellement caractérisée par des changements morphologiques. En revanche, les effets de la réactivité sur les fonctions de support des astrocytes sont mal connus. De plus, les cascades de signalisation qui conduisent à la RA restent à déterminer. Les objectifs de ce projet étaient de : 1/ démontrer que la voie JAK2-STAT3 (Janus Kinase 2 - Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3) joue un rôle central dans le contrôle de la RA au cours des maladies neurodégénératives ; 2/ comprendre quelle est l’implication de la RA dans les altérations moléculaires, cellulaires et fonctionnelles observées dans la MA. Nous avons montré que la voie JAK2-STAT3 est une cascade de signalisation centrale dans la RA (Ben Haim et al., 2015). Dans ce projet, nous démontrons en utilisant de nouveaux outils moléculaires basés sur des vecteurs viraux, que cette voie est nécessaire et suffisante à la RA. Nos résultats montrent également que la modulation de la RA dans deux modèles murins de la MA (souris APP/PS1dE9 et 3xTg-AD) influence certains index pathologiques, mais de façon contexte-dépendante. L’ensemble de ce travail a permis de valider de nouveaux outils pour étudier les astrocytes réactifs in situ et souligne l’importance et la complexité de leur fonctions au cours des maladies neurodégénératives. / Astrocytes are emerging as key players in brain physiology. In Alzheimer’s disease (AD), astrocytes become reactive. Astrocyte reactivity (AR) is essentially characterized by morphological changes. But how the normal supportive functions of astrocytes are changed by their reactive state is unclear. Moreover, signaling cascades leading to AR are not yet determined. In this study, we aim to: 1/ demonstrate the JAK2-STAT3 pathway (Janus Kinase 2 - Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3) is responsible for AR in neurodegenerative diseases ; 2/ understand the contribution of reactive astrocytes to molecular, cellular and functional alterations in AD. We already reported that the JAK2- STAT3 pathway is a central cascade for AR (Ben Haim et al., 2015). Here, we demonstrate, with new molecular tools based on viral vectors, that this pathway is necessary and sufficient to AR. Our results also show that the modulation of AR in two AD mouse models (APP/PS1dE9 and 3xTg-AD mice) influence several pathological hallmarks, but in a context-dependent manner. Overall, this work has generated new original tools to study reactive astrocytes in situ and it underlines the importance and complexity of their functions in neurodegenerative diseases.

Gene therapy is a fast growing technology that offers treatments for genetic diseases. The method is based on introducing genetic material into a patient to replace the disease-causing gene, using a vector. This report examines the potential of some viral vectors for gene therapy, to give Bio-Works Technologies a recommendation on what the future market demands. Oncolytic viruses, vaccines and gene editing are not treated in the report as a delimitation.  Viral vectors have different biological properties and require different purification methods, making them suitable for different applications in gene therapy. In the purification of the viruses it can be challenging to obtain a high purity and large-scale manufacturing. One major drawback with most purification methods is that they are not specific to just one virus, which leads to contaminants in the solution and lower purity. The viral vectors handled in the report are the adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, gammaretrovirus, lentivirus, alpharetrovirus, foamy virus, herpes simplex virus and baculovirus. These were chosen as they are relevant vectors for gene therapy and stay within the scope of the report. Lentiviral vectors (LVs) and adeno-associated viral vectors (AAVs) will dominate the gene therapy field in the coming years. This is based on the information that the use of AAVs and LVs in clinical trials have increased in recent years, while the other vectors mentioned above have slightly decreased or show no apparent change. However, challenges still remain in the purification processes. Ligands used in affinity chromatography for purification of AAVs are effective at removing most contaminants, but cannot distinguish between empty and loaded capsids, which can induce immune response when used clinically. This is the main challenge when purifying AAVs. The empty capsids can be removed with ion exchange chromatography, which results in higher purity but also lower recovery. There is no specific purifying method for LVs, therefore a lentivirus-specific affinity ligand, such as an antibody ligand, would be beneficial for the purification and manufacturing procedure.  In addition to AAVs and LVs, baculoviral vectors and foamy viral vectors show great potential in a long-term perspective but they only have been researched in preclinical studies. Moreover, herpes simplex viral vectors and adenoviral vectors show potential in cancer treatments or as vaccines rather than in augmentation gene therapy.