Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία ασχολείται με το θέμα "ΜεταΒλητότητα των τιμών βασικών προϊόντων και τροφίμων του Νομού Αιτωλοακαρνανίας". Μέσα από παγκόσμιες έρευνες και μελέτες διεθνών οργανισμών, παρατίθενται οι κυριότεροι παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν τη μεταβλητότητα των τιμών των βασικών αγροτικών προϊόντων σε διεθνές επίπεδο, ενώ παράλληλα γίνεται εκτενής αναφορά στον Νομό Αιτωλοακαρνανίας καθώς παρουσιάζεται μια σειρά διαγραμμάτων που αφορούν στοιχεία σχετικά με ορισμένα από τα βασικά αγροτικά προϊόντα του Νομού τόσο της φυτικής όσο και της ζωικής παραγωγής. Η παραγωγή των αγροτικών προϊόντων παίζει ένα σημαντικό ρόλο στην οικονομική δραστηριότητα του κόσμου, ειδικά στις λιγότερο ανεπτυγμένες χώρες. Κατά τη διάρκεια των τελευταίων δεκαετιών, η αγορά των αγροτικών προϊόντων και ιδιαίτερα τα βασικά αγροτικά προϊόντα χαρακτηρίστηκε από μακροχρόνιες διακυμάνσεις των τιμών. Η παραγωγή των προϊόντων αυτών ποικίλει χρόνο με το χρόνο, αφενός λόγω φυσικών παραγόντων όπως οι καιρικές συνθήκες, οι κλιματικές αλλαγές και τα παράσιτα, και αφετέρου από οικονομικούς παράγοντες, όπως οι μεταβολές στις συνθήκες της προσφοράς και της ζήτησης, καθώς και η χρήση των προϊόντων αυτών για την παραγωγή βιοκαυσίμων. Στόχος αυτής της εργασίας είναι να μελετήσουμε τη μεταβλητότητα των τιμών σε μια σειρά βασικών αγροτικών προϊόντων. Η κατανόηση αυτού του φαινομένου είναι σημαντική, διότι επηρεάζει τόσο τους παραγωγούς, όσο και τους καταναλωτές των προϊόντων αυτών. Η εργασία χωρίζεται σε πέντε ενότητες. Αρχικά, παρατίθεται η ιστορική εξέλιξη των τιμών των βασικών αγροτικών προϊόντων, ενώ ορίζονται επιγραμματικά τα βασικά αγροτικά προϊόντα (δημητριακά, σιτηρά, οσπριοειδή, ελαιώδη δημητριακά), τα οποία στη συνέχεια της μελέτης αναφέρονται διεξοδικά. Έπειτα, αναλύεται ο ρόλος του πετρελαίου ως βασικός προσδιοριστικός παράγοντας για την αστάθεια των τιμών των προϊόντων στον τομέα της γεωργίας. Ακόμη, δίνονται ορισμένα στοιχεία για τα βιοκαύσιμα, ενώ αναφέρονται διεξοδικά τα πλεονεκτήματα και τα μειονεκτήματά τους στον τομέα της γεωργίας, στον περιβαλλοντικό τομέα καθώς και στον γεωπολιτικό. Τέλος γίνεται αναφορά στις ιδιαιτερότητες του γεωργικού τομέα και στην αναγκαιότητα της κοινής αγροτικής πολιτικής (Κ.Α.Π). Στην δεύτερη ενότητα με θέμα<< Μεταβλητότητα των τιμών των αγροτικών προϊόντων>> γίνεται λόγος στη μεταβλητότητα των τιμών και τους παράγοντες που την προκαλούν καθώς και στις επιπτώσεις της αστάθειας των τιμών των βασικών αγροτικών προϊόντων σε διεθνές επίπεδο. Στην ενότητα 3 γίνεται λόγος για την διατροφική κρίση που έχει προκύψει από την αύξηση των τιμών των αγροτικών προϊόντων, ενώ παρατίθενται στοιχεία σχετικά με τη σύνθεση του συγκεκριμένου προβλήματος. Ο κανόνας της ζήτησης και της προσφοράς είναι ένας επιπλέον παράγοντας, ο οποίος επηρεάζει καθοριστικά τις τιμές των προϊόντων, καθώς όταν οι όροι της προσφοράς και της ζήτησης είναι σταθεροί ανά έτος ή όταν η ελαστικότητα της ζήτησης και η ελα-στικότητα της προσφοράς είναι σχετικά υψηλή, οι αγορές προϊόντων βιώνουν σταθερότητα στις τιμές των προϊόντων τους. Αντιθέτως, η μεταβλητότητα των τιμών εμφανίζεται κυρίως σε προϊόντα με ασταθείς συνθήκες της προσφοράς και ζήτησης. Επιπλέον, γίνεται εκτενή αναφορά στα βασικά μηνύματα της έκθεση των ΟΟΣΑ-FAO για την δεκαετία 2011-2020. Η ενότητα 4 αναφέρεται στον Νομό Αιτωλοακαρνανίας και γίνεται μία γενικότερη ανασκόπηση της πορείας μερικών εκ των βασικότερων αγροτικών προϊόντων του Νομού μέσα από διαγράμματα. Επιπροσθέτως, γίνεται λόγος και για την Βιολογική Γεωργία- Κτηνοτροφία στον Νομό Αιτωλοακαρνανίας. Τέλος, στην ενότητα 5 θα κλείσουμε με συμπεράσματα και προτάσεις για μελλοντική έρευνα. / This diploma thesis deals with the topic “Volatility in commodity and food prices in Aitoloakarnania prefecture”. In global surveys and studies by international organizations, the main factors that affect the volatility of the prices of basic agricultural products at international level are given, while at the same time made extensive reference to the Prefecture of Aitoloakarnania as presented a series of diagrams that relate to information on some of the main agricultural products of the Prefecture of both plant and animal production.The production of agricultural products plays an important role in the world's economic activity, especially in less developed countries. During the last few decades, the agricultural product market and especially the basic agricultural products was characterised by long-term price fluctuations. The production of these products varies from year to year, partly due to natural factors such as weather, climate changes and pests, and other than economic factors, such as changes in the conditions of supply and demand, as well as the use of these products for the production of bio fuels. The aim of this work is to study the variability of prices in a number of key agricultural products. Understanding this phenomenon is important because it affects both producers and consumers of these products.The thesis is divided into five sections. Initially, the historical evolution of the prices of basic agricultural products, while briefly defined the basic agricultural products (cereals, leguminous, oleaginous grains), which then study detailing. Then it discusses the role of oil as a key enabler for the instability of the prices of products in the field of agriculture. Still, given some data for bio fuels, while detailing the advantages and disadvantages in the field of agriculture, in the environmental sector and geopolitical. Finally, reference is made to the specificities of the agricultural sector and the necessity of the common agricultural policy (C. A. P.).In the second section entitled “Price volatility for agricultural products” refers to price volatility and the factors that cause as well as the impact of volatility in the prices of basic agricultural products internationally. In section 3 refers to the food crisis that has arisen from the rise in prices of agricultural products, while figures concerning the composition of the particular problem. The rule of demand and supply is an additional factor, which affects key commodity prices, when the terms of supply and demand is fixed per year or when the demand elasticity and the elasticity of supply is relatively high, the product markets experiencing stability in the prices of their products. On the contrary, price volatility occurs mainly in unstable conditions of supply and demand. In addition, there is extensive reference to the key messages of the report of the FAO for the Decade 2011–2020. Section 4 refers to the Prefecture of aitoloakarnania and becomes a more general overview of some of the major agricultural products of the Prefecture through diagrams. In addition, there is talk about Organic Farming in Georgia Prefecture of Aitoloakarnania. Finally, in section 5 we will close with conclusions and suggestions for future research.

Por que os padrões oficiais para produtos frescos não são adotados no Brasil? Apesar das vantagens expostas pela teoria econômica, padrões oficiais não são adotados. O mercado agrícola lida com a incerteza derivada de características inerentes tais como variabilidade e perecibilidade dos produtos frescos. Padrões homogeneízam bens, levando o mercado a ser mais competitivo. É esperado, portanto, que os agentes adotem padrões para reduzir tal variabilidade. Entretanto, no principal mercado atacadista brasileiro, o sistema atual de classificação não é previsível, e os agentes têm recusado a aceitar o novo padrão oficial. Os produtos são classificados de acordo com a qualidade observada no dia e os preços são então estabelecidos. Cada dia uma nova classificação é feita. Em alguns casos não somente os preços oscilam diariamente, mas também o que é definido como \"A\" hoje pode ser considerado \"2A\" amanhã. Sendo o padrão oficial voluntário, parte-se da premissa de que a adoção é uma decisão organizacional de cada firma. Duas hipóteses são feitas. Os agentes enfrentarão benefícios e custos antes e depois da adoção do novo padrão. Se os custos forem mais elevados do que os benefícios previstos, os agentes rejeitarão o padrão. De acordo com a perspectiva de governança, mesmo quando são esperados ganhos líquidos, os agentes tenderão a resistir à padronização se houver necessidade de investimentos que envolvam especificidade, e salvaguardas serão necessárias a fim de proteger quase renda. Na segunda hipótese, os agentes não adotam padrões porque se beneficiam da falta de delimitação dos atributos capturando margens que estão em domínio público. Assim, os custos da mensuração dos atributos estariam afetando a padronização. A análise empírica tem foco nas transações entre atacadista e varejista de tomate fresco que ocorrem no principal mercado atacadista brasileiro. A pesquisa integra: análise da estrutura contratual do arranjo e do mercado dos agentes envolvidos na transação; um estudo de caso; e uma análise da relação entre custos para adoção do padrão oficial, custos de mensuração e especificidade do ativo. Origens dos dados: survey com atacadistas e varejistas. Como resultados, a padronização requer alto nível de investimento específico e, portanto, custos de transação seriam altos. De acordo com a perspectiva de governança, não haveria incentivos para agentes investirem em tecnologia sem salvaguardas. Os dados empíricos observados na situação atual foram baixo nível de investimentos específicos, incerteza secundária (Williamson, 1985) derivada de potencial devolução de mercadoria, e alta freqüência da transação. Sobre custos de mensuração, esses são potencialmente altos. Os agentes levam muitas horas para realizar a compra, precisam ir várias vezes por semana ao mercado e os consumidores reclamam por terem que fazer a seleção. / Why are official standards not adopted in the market for fresh food in Brazil? Despite the advantages widely claimed by economic theory, official standards are proposed but not adopted. Agricultural markets include uncertainty derived from inherent characteristics such as variability and perishability. Standards homogenize goods, leading to more competitive markets. It is to be expected that agents will adopt standards to reduce variability. However in the major Brazilian wholesale markets, the present grade system is unpredictable, and agents have been refusing to accept new official standards. Products are classified according to the quality observed and then the prices are established. Each day a new grade is ascribed. In some cases, not only do prices oscillate daily, but also what is defined as grade \"A\" today might be considered grade \"2A\" tomorrow. Since official standard is voluntary, we assume the adoption as an organizational decision of each firm. Two hypotheses are made. Agents will face benefits and costs before and after the adoption of a new standard. If the costs are higher than the expected benefits, agents will reject the standard. According to the \"governance perspective\", even when net gains are expected, agents tend to resist standard adoption if it requires specific asset investment and safeguards will be required in order to protect quasi rents. The second hypothesis is, agents don\'t\' adopt standards since they get benefits from the lack of delimitation of attributes through capturing margins in public domain. Thus, measurement costs of attributes based on official standards are affecting standard adoption. Empirical analysis is focused on fresh tomato wholesaler-retailer transactions on the main Brazilian wholesale market. The research integrates: analysis of the contractual arrangement and market structure of the agents involved in the transaction; a case study; and an analysis of the causal relations between official standard adoption and measurement costs and asset specificity. Data sources: survey of wholesalers and retailers; exploratory interviews with wholesale market agents. Standardization requires high level of specific investments. Technology is product specific thus costs would be high. Thus according to governance perspective there are no incentives for agents to invest in technology. The findings are low level of specific investments, secondary uncertainty (Willianson, 1985) derived from potential merchandise return and a high frequency of transaction. About measurement costs, these are potentially high since agents take several hours to buy the product and consumers complain about doing the selection. Long ago, public administration spent resources trying to introduce unambiguous standards. The results may contribute to public policy by showing the determinants based on efficiency principles that are confounding the implementation of standards.

Por que os padrões oficiais para produtos frescos não são adotados no Brasil? Apesar das vantagens expostas pela teoria econômica, padrões oficiais não são adotados. O mercado agrícola lida com a incerteza derivada de características inerentes tais como variabilidade e perecibilidade dos produtos frescos. Padrões homogeneízam bens, levando o mercado a ser mais competitivo. É esperado, portanto, que os agentes adotem padrões para reduzir tal variabilidade. Entretanto, no principal mercado atacadista brasileiro, o sistema atual de classificação não é previsível, e os agentes têm recusado a aceitar o novo padrão oficial. Os produtos são classificados de acordo com a qualidade observada no dia e os preços são então estabelecidos. Cada dia uma nova classificação é feita. Em alguns casos não somente os preços oscilam diariamente, mas também o que é definido como \"A\" hoje pode ser considerado \"2A\" amanhã. Sendo o padrão oficial voluntário, parte-se da premissa de que a adoção é uma decisão organizacional de cada firma. Duas hipóteses são feitas. Os agentes enfrentarão benefícios e custos antes e depois da adoção do novo padrão. Se os custos forem mais elevados do que os benefícios previstos, os agentes rejeitarão o padrão. De acordo com a perspectiva de governança, mesmo quando são esperados ganhos líquidos, os agentes tenderão a resistir à padronização se houver necessidade de investimentos que envolvam especificidade, e salvaguardas serão necessárias a fim de proteger quase renda. Na segunda hipótese, os agentes não adotam padrões porque se beneficiam da falta de delimitação dos atributos capturando margens que estão em domínio público. Assim, os custos da mensuração dos atributos estariam afetando a padronização. A análise empírica tem foco nas transações entre atacadista e varejista de tomate fresco que ocorrem no principal mercado atacadista brasileiro. A pesquisa integra: análise da estrutura contratual do arranjo e do mercado dos agentes envolvidos na transação; um estudo de caso; e uma análise da relação entre custos para adoção do padrão oficial, custos de mensuração e especificidade do ativo. Origens dos dados: survey com atacadistas e varejistas. Como resultados, a padronização requer alto nível de investimento específico e, portanto, custos de transação seriam altos. De acordo com a perspectiva de governança, não haveria incentivos para agentes investirem em tecnologia sem salvaguardas. Os dados empíricos observados na situação atual foram baixo nível de investimentos específicos, incerteza secundária (Williamson, 1985) derivada de potencial devolução de mercadoria, e alta freqüência da transação. Sobre custos de mensuração, esses são potencialmente altos. Os agentes levam muitas horas para realizar a compra, precisam ir várias vezes por semana ao mercado e os consumidores reclamam por terem que fazer a seleção. / Why are official standards not adopted in the market for fresh food in Brazil? Despite the advantages widely claimed by economic theory, official standards are proposed but not adopted. Agricultural markets include uncertainty derived from inherent characteristics such as variability and perishability. Standards homogenize goods, leading to more competitive markets. It is to be expected that agents will adopt standards to reduce variability. However in the major Brazilian wholesale markets, the present grade system is unpredictable, and agents have been refusing to accept new official standards. Products are classified according to the quality observed and then the prices are established. Each day a new grade is ascribed. In some cases, not only do prices oscillate daily, but also what is defined as grade \"A\" today might be considered grade \"2A\" tomorrow. Since official standard is voluntary, we assume the adoption as an organizational decision of each firm. Two hypotheses are made. Agents will face benefits and costs before and after the adoption of a new standard. If the costs are higher than the expected benefits, agents will reject the standard. According to the \"governance perspective\", even when net gains are expected, agents tend to resist standard adoption if it requires specific asset investment and safeguards will be required in order to protect quasi rents. The second hypothesis is, agents don\'t\' adopt standards since they get benefits from the lack of delimitation of attributes through capturing margins in public domain. Thus, measurement costs of attributes based on official standards are affecting standard adoption. Empirical analysis is focused on fresh tomato wholesaler-retailer transactions on the main Brazilian wholesale market. The research integrates: analysis of the contractual arrangement and market structure of the agents involved in the transaction; a case study; and an analysis of the causal relations between official standard adoption and measurement costs and asset specificity. Data sources: survey of wholesalers and retailers; exploratory interviews with wholesale market agents. Standardization requires high level of specific investments. Technology is product specific thus costs would be high. Thus according to governance perspective there are no incentives for agents to invest in technology. The findings are low level of specific investments, secondary uncertainty (Willianson, 1985) derived from potential merchandise return and a high frequency of transaction. About measurement costs, these are potentially high since agents take several hours to buy the product and consumers complain about doing the selection. Long ago, public administration spent resources trying to introduce unambiguous standards. The results may contribute to public policy by showing the determinants based on efficiency principles that are confounding the implementation of standards.

Taiwan¡¦s mango peasants and industries can gain from trade, especially by exporting high-quality mangos to high-income countries of the world ( like Japan ). But there are still some Taiwanese mango peasants who suffer from low bargaining power in a nearly perfectly competitive market and the downward trend of market prices. By interviewing peasants and middlemen about marketing channels of mangos of Yujing Township in Tainan County, I found the following aspects as crucial for a high-profit marketing of mango: agricultural technology, grading and packaging, quality control and logistical conditions as well as a better interaction between peasants, farmers¡¦ associations, enterprises and governmental institutions. Thus, I consider using markets segmentation as a good strategy in order to increase the competitiveness of agricultural products and lower nontariff trade barriers, therefore help raising peasants¡¦ bargaining power and solute the problem of downward trend of market prices. Markets segmentation is a term used in order to describe the segmentation of agricultural products according to their characteristics. The four aspects mentioned above make the markets segmentation efficient. Good interactions between peasants, farmers¡¦ associations, enterprises and governmental institutions can facilitate the operation in the marketing system and thus increase the value of agricultural products. This study also inspires China¡¦s peasants as well as makes China government the scholar who research problems about agriculture, rural areas and peasantry understand the problems of Mainland China¡¦s agricultural products marketing.

Combined with farmers¡¦ innovations and modern biotechnological discoveries since 20 years ago, Taiwan has become a critical exporter of phalaenopsis. In 2004, Council of Agriculture set phalaenopsis, mango, tea and Taiwan porgy as the four crucial exporting agricultural products. Yet it was when the total value of phalaenopsis exported went down, a significant siren indicating that the phalaenopsis growing industry is facing severe environments. This research discussed business model, related practice and competition advantages of the case company in the phalaenopsis growing industry, and compare them with researchers¡¦ papers including Dr. Peng Tso-kuei¡¦s discoveries of the trends of management and competition. Results are: I. The case company carried out its idea, spirit and objectives in their operation, II. Differentiation strategy is the main source of the case company¡¦s competitive advantage, and III. The management and competition situations of phalaenopsis growing industry changes fast, firms should adjust practices to adjust themselves to the market.

Το μάρκετινγκ των αγροτικών προϊόντων και τροφίμων περιλαμβάνει όλες τις δραστηριότητες που παρεμβάλονται μεταξύ της παραγωγής και της κατανάλωσης και αποτελεί μια επιστήμη που καθορίζει τον σχεδιασμό,την παραγωγή,την προώθηση,την τιμολόγηση και την τελική διανομή του αγροτικού προϊόντος με άμεσους ενδιαφερόμενους όλους όσους εμπλέκονται στην πολύπλοκη αυτή αλυσίδα εμπορίας των αγροτικών προϊόντων από τον παραγωγό στον καταναλωτή.Στόχος του μάρκετινγκ είναι η διευκόλυνση της παραγωγής και της εμπορίας του τελικού προϊόντος, συμβάλλοντας ταυτόχρονα στην δημιουργία ενός όσο το δυνατόν καλύτερου και ποιοτικότερου αγροτικού προϊόντος ή τροφίμου,έχοντας την δυνατότητα προσαρμογής στις διαρκώς μεταβαλλόμενες απαιτήσεις και συνθήκες της αγοράς. / Marketing of agricultural products and food includes all activities that are interposed between production and consumption, and is a science that determines the design , production , promotion, pricing and distribution of the final agricultural product with all those stakeholders involved in this complex supply chain for agricultural products from the producer to the consumer. The aim of marketing is to facilitate the production and marketing of the final product , while helping to create a best possible and highest quality agricultural product or foodstuff , having the ability to adapt to changing requirements and market conditions .

Παρά τη συνολική αύξηση του όγκου των παραγόμενων τροφίμων στον κόσμο, το πρόβλημα της πείνας και του υποσιτισμού, για μεγάλο μέρος των κατοίκων του πλανήτη παραμένει άλυτο. Η ενεργειακή κρίση και η παραγωγή βιοκαυσίμων δίνουν νέα διάσταση στη διατροφική κρίση και στην ακρίβεια τροφίμων. Κατανοώντας λοιπόν τη σπουδαιότητα του θέματος, εκπονήθηκε η παρούσα εργασία. Σκοπός της είναι να διερευνηθεί η σχέση μεταξύ των αγροτικών προϊόντων που προορίζονται για τη διατροφή του ανθρώπου και των βιοκαυσίμων που σχηματίζονται από αυτά. Παράλληλα εξετάζεται και η αλληλεπίδρασή τους με τις τιμές του πετρελαίου. Η εφαρμογή του Υποδείγματος Αυτοπαλίνδρομου Διανύσματος (VAR) καθώς και του Υποδείγματος Aπαρατήρητων ή Σταθερών Επιδράσεων (Fixed Effects Model) βοήθησαν στην εξαγωγή ορισμένων συμπερασμάτων. Σύμφωνα με το πρώτο υπόδειγμα παρουσιάζεται αλληλεπίδραση των τιμών τεσσάρων προϊόντων(καλαμπόκι, ζάχαρη, σογιέλαιο και κραμβέλαιο) με τα βιοκαύσιμα και το πετρέλαιο. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, οι τιμές του καλαμποκιού αντιδρούν αρνητικά το μεγαλύτερο διάστημα σε απρόσμενες μεταβολές του πετρελαίου ενώ θετικά το μεγαλύτερο διάστημα σε μεταβολές της βιοαιθανόλης. Οι τιμές της ζάχαρης αντιδρούν θετικά για μια περίοδο και στη συνέχεια βαίνουν μειούμενες σε αιφνίδια μεταβολή του πετρελαίου. Η αντίστοιχη αντίδραση σε μεταβολές της βιοαιθανόλης, την πρώτη περίοδο είναι θετική, για τις δυο επόμενες αρνητική και στη συνέχεια θετική για τις υπόλοιπες περιόδους. Όσον αφορά στην αντίδραση των τιμών του σογιέλαιου σε απρόσμενη μεταβολή του πετρελαίου τα αποτελέσματα δείχνουν ότι τις πέντε πρώτες περιόδους είναι θετική, μεταξύ πέμπτης και όγδοης αρνητική και στη συνέχεια θετική. Η αντίδραση των τιμών του σογιέλαιου σε μεταβολές του βιοντίζελ είναι αρνητική τις πέντε πρώτες περιόδους, θετική μεταξύ πέμπτης και όγδοης, αρνητική μεταξύ όγδοης και δωδέκατης ενώ στη συνέχεια η διαταραχή αυτή απορροφάται από το σύστημα. Τέλος, η αντίδραση των τιμών του κραμβέλαιου σε μια απροσδόκητη μεταβολή του πετρελαίου, τις πρώτες τέσσερις περιόδους είναι θετική, τις τέσσερις επόμενες αρνητική ενώ τις επόμενες παρατηρείται απορρόφηση της διαταραχής. Η αντίστοιχη αντίδραση σε μια απρόβλεπτη διαταραχή του βιοντίζελ την πρώτη περίοδο είναι θετική, μεταξύ δεύτερης και πέμπτης αρνητική, πέμπτης και δέκατης θετική ενώ στη συνέχεια η διαταραχή αυτή τείνει να απορροφηθεί από το σύστημα. Για τέσσερα προϊόντα (σιτάρι, κριθάρι, σόργο και φοινικέλαιο) η VAR ανάλυση δεν μας παρουσίασε κάποιο αξιόλογο συμπέρασμα λόγω κακής εφαρμογής του μοντέλου αυτού στα συγκεκριμένα προϊόντα. Ωστόσο, σύμφωνα με το υπόδειγμα απαρατήρητων ή σταθερών επιδράσεων (fixed effects) υπάρχει αλληλεξάρτηση ανάμεσα στα προϊόντα (συμπεριλαμβανομένων και εκείνων που η VAR ανάλυση δεν μπόρεσε να ερμηνεύσει), τα βιοκαύσιμα και το πετρέλαιο. Πιο ισχυρή σχέση προέκυψε εκείνη της βιοαιθανόλης με τα προϊόντα και του βιοντίζελ με τα προϊόντα. / Despite the total increase of the produced food in the world, the problem of hunger and malnutrition remains unsolved for a big part of the world population. The energy crisis and the production of biofuels give a new dimension in the food crisis and the high prices of foods. Thus, taking into account the importance of the above subject, the present paper is carried out. The aim of the paper is the analysis of the relation between the agricultural products destinated for human food on the one hand and the biofuels created from them on the other. At the same time their interaction with the prices of oil is also examined. Methodogically speaking, the application of the Vector Autoregressive Model (VAR) as well as the Fixed Effects Model help in the conduct of certain conclusions. According to the first model, an interaction between the prices of four products (corn, sugar, soybean oil, rapeseed oil) as well as the biofuels and oil prices is presented. In particular, the prices of corn react in a negative way to the unforeseen changes of oil prices while they react in a positive way in the bioethanol changes during the longer time period. The sugar prices react positively for a period and afterwards are decreased in a sudden change of oil prices. The corresponding reaction in bioethanol changes for the first period is positive, for the next two periods is negative and afterwards for the rest periods is positive. As far as the reaction of soybean oil prices in an unpredictable change of oil prices are concerned, the results show that in the five first periods is positive, between the fifth and eighth period is negative, and afterwards positive. The reaction of soybean oil prices in biodiesel changes is negative for the first five periods, between the fifth and eighth period is positive, between eighth and twelfth is negative whereas this disturbance is absorbed by the system afterwards. Finally, the reaction of the rapeseed oil in an unexpected change of oil prices, for the first four periods is positive for the four next periods is negative while for the next periods an absorption of disturbance is observed. Respectively, the reaction in an unanticipated disturbance of biodiesel for the first period is positive, between the second and fifth period is negative, between the fifth and tenth period is positive while this disturbance tends to be absorbed from the system afterwards. For the next four products (wheat, barley, sorghum and palm oil) the VAR analysis did not lead to a significant conclusion because of a bad application of the model on the particular products. However, according to the fixed effects model there is an interaction between the products (included also those that the VAR analysis cannot interpret), biofuels and oil. The more powerful relation is proved those of bioethanol with the products and those of the biodiesel with the products.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:31:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-06-06Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:42:03Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 cafeo_rc_dr_botfca.pdf: 807318 bytes, checksum: 3216b6d5df542a12dab7c6f93afdbc49 (MD5) / O presente trabalho teve por objetivo estimar o custo médio de capital em produtos agrícolas. Existem modelos que determinam o custo médio de capital no mercado de capitais, definindo parâmetro para fixação do que se chama de taxa mínima de atratividade em investimentos produtivos. Tais modelos levam em conta o custo de capital de terceiros, que é determinado a partir de pesquisas em linhas de crédito disponíveis no mercado e ainda o custo do capital próprio, este sim, requerendo uma análise detalhada de sua composição. Foi construído um modelo que pondere o custo de obter recursos de terceiros, quando houver, e o capital próprio, tendo por base o modelo CAPM – Capital AssetPrincing Model (Modelo de Precificação de Ativos) utilizado quando da análise de risco e retorno no mercado de capital. A finalidade deste estudo é aplicar esta metodologia na análise de risco e retorno em investimentos produtivos em setores que operam com produtos agrícolas. Para tanto foi realizada revisão bibliográfica, bem como a definição de materiais e métodos, com a apuração de resultados. Foi aplicado o modelo CAPM em uma ação selecionada comparando-o ao mercado acionário como um todo, representado pelo IBOVESPA. Em seguida foi construída carteira teórica de produtos agrícolas selecionados para este fim, denominado de I PRODUTOS AGRÍCOLAS. Em seguida foi analisado isoladamente cada produto selecionado, comparando-o a esta carteira teórica de produtos agrícolas, construída especialmente para tal fim. Com isso pretendeu-se testar cientificamente um modelo que permita, quando da análise da viabilidade de projetos no setor agrícola, estabelecer a taxa mínima de atratividade que retrate o risco e retorno no setor, ponderando o custo do capital próprio, originado a partir do modelo CAPM e o custo do capital de terceiros, baseado nas taxas de juros praticados pelo mercado... / This work had aimed to estimate the average cost of capital in agricultural products. There are templates that determine the average cost of capital on the capital market, defining parameter for fixing the called minimum rate of attractiveness in productive investments. These models take into account the cost of third-party capital, which is determined from searches on credit lines available in the market and even the cost of equity, this sim, requiring a detailed analysis of its composition. Will be built a model that considers the cost of taking the resources of third parties, when, and equity, on the basis of the CAPM Capital Asset Princing Model (asset pricing model) used when analyzing risk and return on the capital market. The purpose of this study is to apply this methodology in the analysis of risk and return in productive investments in sectors that operate with agricultural products. For both was conducted literature review as well as the definition of materials and methods, with the poll results. Was applied the CAPM model in a selected action comparing it to the stock market as a whole, represented by the IBOVESPA. Next was built theoretical portfolio of selected agricultural products for this purpose, called I agricultural products. Then was analyzed separately each product selected, comparing it to this theoretical portfolio of agricultural products, built especially for this purpose. This was intended to test scientifically a template that allows, when assessing the feasibility of projects in the agricultural sector, establish the minimum rate of attractiveness that portrays the risk and return in the sector, bearing in mind the cost of equity, originated from the CAPM and the cost of capital to third parties, based on the interest rates charged by the market. The model developed generated a theoretical reference in determining... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Magister Legum - LLM / A geographical indication (GI) is a sign by which a product is identified as having its origin in a particular territory and as having certain qualities, characteristics and a reputation, which are associated with that origin. There is currently no uniform international mechanism of protecting GIs, however, the framework for the protection of GIs is provided by Articles 22 to 24 of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Article 23.1 provides a distinct advantage for the protection of wines and spirits as compared to the general protection of Article 22 for all other products. This thesis argues that a uniform system of protection for GIs should be established internationally, and that protection would be to the advantage of developing countries. The purpose of this study is to determine the best available method (i.e. trademark legislation or sui generis legislation) for protecting GIs for agricultural products of developing countries, through analysing the international legal framework governing the protection of GIs and the methods of national protection available as applied in Ethiopia, South Africa and India. The central argument advanced is that the use of trademarks should be a stepping stone, sui generis legislation is the ideal. Sui generis (separate) legislation should be drafted to fulfil the obligations of TRIPS and to ensure the extended protection, through national legislation, of all goods within other Member States. It is highly unlikely that the TRIPS Member States will agree to the extended protection of the Article 23. Therefore, the most suitable method to achieve such protection would be for Member States to extend their national protection through sui generis legislation.

The European Union is proposing that the additional protection for geographical indications afforded to wine and spirits in section 23.1 of the TRIPS agreement be extended to include geographical indications of other agricultural products. Those opposing increased protection for geographical indications represent those countries which do not have a strong history of traditional food products and are generally considered new world countries. South Africa, as part of the new world, has as of yet failed to take a position on the matter. In light of this debate, this study sets out to investigate the relevance of geographical indications in a South African context in order to make recommendations for South Africa’s position in the debate at multi-lateral level. The topic is approached by first contextualizing the subject matter where after the economic rationale for the protection thereof is explored. A comprehensive literature study identifies the factors which contribute to a product’s potential to benefit from geographical indication protection. Based on these factors, three South African products, Rooibos, Klein Karoo ostrich and Honeybush, are analyzed and an ex ante judgment made as to their potential to benefit from geographical indication protection. It is hypothesized that geographical indications are indeed relevant in a South African context given that there are many South African products which are considered to be highly localized with a strong association between the region and the product. The Rooibos scenario is used to illustrate the need for timely protection of our national assets and sets the tone for the discussion of the two further case studies. It is found that despite widespread reputation, Klein Karoo ostrich may not ideally benefit from geographical indication protection given its lack of specificity. In contrast, it is found that Honeybush tea is a highly localised product with strong specificity and therefore stands to benefit from geographical indication protection. The study concludes that there are indeed South African products which could potentially benefit from geographical indication protection. Based on this, recommendations are made for South Africa’s position in the debate at multi-lateral level. It is recommended that the South African government take note of the potential of geographical indications to foster rural development and the need to protect our national assets from foreign appropriation. It is further recommended that this be done by firstly coming out in support of the European proposal for a mandatory system of registration for all products bearing a geographical indication and secondly, by providing for the development of an institutional framework within which to protect geographical indications domestically. / Dissertation (M.COM (Economic Sciences))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted