A significant problem with exploring for electrically conductive mineral deposits with airborne electromagnetic (AEM) methods is that many of the most valuable sulphide deposits are too conductive to be detected with conventional systems. High-grade sulphide deposits with bulk electrical conductivities on the order of 100,000 S/m can appear as “perfect conductors” to most EM systems because the decay of secondary fields (the “time constant” of the deposit) generated in the target by the system transmitter takes much longer than the short measuring time of EM systems. Their EM response is essentially undetectable with off-time measurements. One solution is to make measurements during the transmitter on-time when the secondary field of the target produced by magnetic flux exclusion is large. The difficulty is that the secondary field must be measured in the presence of a primary field which is orders of magnitude larger. The goal of this thesis is to advance the methodology of making AEM measurements during transmitter on-time by analysing experimental data from three different AEM systems. The first system analysed is a very large separation, two helicopter system where geometry is measured using GPS sensors. In order to calculate the primary field at the receiver with sufficient accuracy, the very large (nominally 400 m) separation requires geometry to be known to better than 1 m. Using the measured geometry to estimate and remove the primary field, I show that a very conductive target can be detected at depths of 200m using the total secondary field. I then used fluxgate magnetometers to correct for receiver rotation which allowed the component of the secondary field to be determined. The second system I examined was a large separation fixed-wing AEM system. Using a towed receiver bird with a smaller (˜ 135m) separation, the geometry must be known much more accurately. In the absence of direct measurement of this geometry, I used a least-squares prediction approach using measurements of aircraft manoeuvres which allowed primary field contamination to be estimated. Subtracting this estimate from the recorded signal increased the maximum time constant observed in a field survey for conductive targets by a factor of seven. Finally, a study of a nominally rigid helicopter EM system employing a bucking coil to cancel primary field showed that system geometry (specifically, the position of the receiver coil relative to the transmitter and bucking coils) must be known to better than 0.01 mm to detect deep targets. Again, direct measurements of system geometry were not available. A least-squares prediction filter using helicopter manoeuvre and system pitch and roll measurements was applied, but was not able to estimate primary field well enough to provide an accurate secondary on-time response. Direct measurements of relative motion of the system components might solve this problem.

Thesis (M.S.)--Naval Postgraduate School, 2002. / Thesis advisor(s): / David C. Tucker, John J. Arquilla. Includes bibliographical references (p. 85-87). Also available online.

Calcined clay and fly ash supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) used in cement based materials were examined for their chemical and mechanical performance, as well as their pollutant interaction. This dissertation addresses three primary research questions, namely: (i) can zincite additions facilitate the use of calcined clay as SCMs by compensating for reductions in early-age mechanical performance or by compensating for their reduced pozzolanic reactivity, (ii) can cement renders, containing metakaolin calcined clays, be engineered for passive carbon dioxide and ozone removal, and (iii) how do the specific activity and emanation fractions of concrete constituents, including fly ash and metakaolin, as well as assembled concretes impact concrete radon emanation and indoor radon concentrations? The first question relates directly to the development of new, sustainable material options, which can replace a portion of cement in a concrete mixture. Results from the experiments with zincite showed that the treatment method removed the dilution effect that occurs when using less reactive materials to substitute a portion of portland cement, but did not considerably influence mechanical properties. Therefore, zincite additions are not a good means of enhancing the utilization of non-kaolinite clays in concrete. As an integrated system, the latter two questions of this dissertation investigate the interaction between airborne pollutants and the cement based materials containing SCMs. The use of SCMs in render and concrete systems resulted in different pollutant uptake and exhalation behavior, relative to non-SCM control systems. For pollutant uptake, render systems containing metakaolin increased the carbon dioxide ingress while decreasing the ozone uptake. For radon exhalation rates, modeling results demonstrated that concretes without fly ash have a higher probability of containing less total radium and lower radon exhalation rates, when compared to samples with fly ash, assuming an emanation fraction of 5%, as suggested in the literature. Experimental results demonstrated that metakaolin, fly ash and control concretes had emanation fractions of 7%, 9% and 13%, respectively, confirming that (i) an assumed fraction of 5% would underpredict indoor radon concentrations and potential health consequences, and (ii) SCMs can reduce the total concrete emanation fraction. This dissertation demonstrates how the use of sustainable material selections, such as calcined clays and fly ashes, not only influences the microstructure and mechanical performance of the cement based materials, but also alters the interaction of the material with its surrounding environment. / text

Interpersonal transport of expiratory droplets and droplet nuclei constitutes a prerequisite for the transmission of pathogens as well as the transmission of respiratory diseases. This study modeled the physical process of interpersonal transport of droplets and droplet nuclei in a ventilated room. The impacts of a number of parameters in three length scales and three corresponding physical processes were analyzed, including dispersion and evaporation of droplets/droplet nuclei at 1 to 100 μm, human exhalation flows and body plumes at 0.1 to 1 m, and the indoor environment at 1 to 10 m. The strong hygroscopicity of the solutes in the droplet is capable of keeping the droplet with an equilibrium size in humid air, larger than that of a dried particle. Mathematical models were developed to predict the droplet nucleus size in both dry air and humid air, by simplifying the composition of one expiratory droplet to NaCl solution and suspended spherical particles. For a droplet with an initial diameter of 100 μm, initial NaCl concentration of 0.9%, and initial solids ratio of 1.8%, the droplet nucleus size was estimated to be 42 μm in an ambient relative humidity of 90% (25°C), which is 30% larger than it was in a relative humidity of 30% (25°C). A numerical model was also developed to predict droplet evaporation and dispersion in a constant turbulent buoyant jet. Droplets with initial sizes larger than 80 μm were predicted to deposit on the floor at a distance of ~1.25 m (~1.7 m for 60 μm) away from the mouth, while droplets with initial sizes less than 40 μm travelled to the end of the jet. A series of experiments was conducted to assess the characteristics of human exhalation airflows and thermal plume, using a full-scale test room and a breathing thermal manikin. The impacts of the ventilation system were illustrated by comparing the velocity distribution of the exhalation airflows and airflows induced by thermal plume. Further experiments employing two breathing thermal manikins were carried out to evaluate the interpersonal transport of the expiratory contaminants that were simulated by tracer gas. When the two manikins with the same heights were standing face to face at a mutual distance of 0.8 m, the exhalation airflows from the mouth of the source manikin could directly travel into the breathing region of the susceptible manikin, resulting in a high exposure. The high exposure decreased sharply with an increase in the mutual distance from 0.5 m to 1.0 m. Between 1.0 m to 3.0 m, the exposure by the susceptible manikin remained at a low and constant level. Numerical simulations considering droplet evaporation and droplet nucleus sizes were carried out; and the impacts of the parameters of droplet initial size, humidity, vicinity, ventilation conditions and synchronization of exhalation were evaluated. Fine droplets and droplet nuclei were predicted to travel toward the upper part of the test room, whereas large droplets tend to be deposited on the floor. With a high relative humidity, 95%, most of the droplets were deposited on the floor within 16 seconds. Meanwhile, all of the droplets evaporated to droplet nuclei and remained suspended in the air when the relative humidity was 35%. Mixing ventilation that supplied fresh air with a ventilation rate of 5.6 h-1 resulted in drafts and strong turbulence, which made droplets and droplet nuclei dispersed in the room. The average vertical position was higher than that when the ventilation rate was 3.0 h-1. Displacement ventilation led to the vertical temperature stratification in the room. The vertical temperature gradient could neutralize the buoyancy force and weaken body plumes and the vertical dispersion of droplets and droplet nuclei. The inhalation of the droplets and droplet nuclei by the susceptible person and the deposition of the droplets and droplet nuclei on the body surface of the susceptible person were investigated at mutual distances of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 3.0 m. For one breath from the source person, 1,600 droplets were released. Three and 9 droplet nuclei were inhaled by the susceptible person at a mutual distance of 0.5 and 1.0 m, respectively. No droplet nuclei were inhaled at 1.5 and 3.0 m. / published_or_final_version / Mechanical Engineering / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Airborne disease transmission is a prominent problem facing an increasingly mobilized world. It involves small droplets (bioaerosols) containing pathogens which form in the lungs and are expelled to the environment, where they may persist in the air until inhaled by others. Conceptually, there are two basic approaches to preventing transmission: protect the potential target, or eliminate the source. To this end, the effectiveness of modifying mucus viscoelasticity, through cation exposure, to prevent pathogen transport via bioaerosols was investigated. In vitro models were developed to explore the proposed mechanisms for droplet formation: shear-induced surface-wave instabilities in the airway lining fluid (ALF) of the upper airways; and film formation during the re-opening of collapsed bronchioles in the lower airways. Droplet formation during tidal breathing was shown to be an inhalation process for both upper and lower airway models, and the bifurcation angle of the first bronchi was relevant to the upper airway model. A simulated cough system was also developed and produced the largest number of droplets. COPD sputum viscoelasticity was characterized and its response to cation presence measured: low concentrations of calcium resulted in increased complex modulus and decreased loss tangent (indicating increased fluid stiffness resulting from higher elasticity). Higher concentrations of calcium had the reverse effect. Using the cough system, calcium treated (low concentration) and untreated sputum were compared: treated sputum produced fewer droplets. Droplet concentration (number per liter of air) correlated well with the magnitude of the complex modulus. Once the reduction in total droplets was established, pathogen transport experiments, in which human rhinovirus (HRV) was added to calcium-treated and untreated COPD sputum, were performed. Cell culture media was exposed to cough-air from the samples and then placed on HRV-sensitized HeLa cells, which were then monitored for cell death. Cell death was observed for untreated sputum samples, but not for cation-treated samples, indicating that reducing bioaerosol formation (through cationic modification of mucus viscoelasticity) prevented airborne transport of the virus. / Engineering and Applied Sciences

Atmospheric aerosols impact the quality of our life in many direct and indirect ways. Inhalation of aerosols can have harmful effects on human health. Aerosols also have climatic impacts by absorbing or scattering solar radiation, or more indirectly through their interactions with clouds. Despite a better understanding of several relevant aerosol properties and processes in the past years, they remain the largest uncertainty in the estimate of global radiative forcing. The uncertainties arise because although aerosols are ubiquitous in the Earth's atmosphere they are highly variable in space, time and their physicochemical properties. This makes in-situ measurements of aerosols vital in our effort towards reducing uncertainties in the estimate of global radiative forcing due to aerosols. This study is an effort to characterize atmospheric aerosols at a regional scale, in southern Arizona and eastern Pacific Ocean, based on ground and airborne observations of aerosols. Metals and metalloids in particles with aerodynamic diameter (Dp) smaller than 2.5μm are found to be ubiquitous in southern Arizona. The major sources of the elements considered in the study are identified to be crustal dust, smelting/mining activities and fuel combustion. The spatial and temporal variability in the mass concentrations of these elements depend both on the source strength and meteorological conditions. Aircraft measurements of aerosol and cloud properties collected during various field campaigns over the eastern Pacific Ocean are used to study the sources of nitrate in stratocumulus cloud water and the relevant processes. The major sources of nitrate in cloud water in the region are emissions from ships and wildfires. Different pathways for nitrate to enter cloud water and the role of meteorology in these processes are examined. Observations of microphysical properties of ambient aerosols in ship plumes are examined. The study shows that there is an enhancement in the number concentration of giant cloud condensation nuclei (Dp>2 μm) in ship plumes relative to the unperturbed background regions over the ocean.

Falkenberg area is located in southwest Sweden formed in the Sveconorwegian orogen and contains an extremely complex geological structure. Multiple geophysical datasets have been acquired and together with available petrophysical information, models corresponding to the subsurface geological structures were generated. The collected data comprise ground magnetic, AMT (Audio Magnetotelluric) and RMT (Radio Magnetotelluric) data. The available airborne magnetic and ground gravity data acquired by the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) as well as the reflection seismic section from a study made by Uppsala University further aids in obtaining substantially improved interpretation of the geometry of the structures along the AMT profile. The principal objective of this profile was to delineate and map the possible deformation zone crossed by the profile. The AMT study was expected to complement existing geophysical data and improve existing interpretations. The Ullared deformation zone contains decompressed eclogite facies rocks. The presented results were obtained by comparison of different geophysical methods along the profile. The susceptibility model and resistivity model show that eclogites have higher resistivity and susceptibility than the surrounding structures. However use of the Occam type of inversion on the AMT data, makes the resistivity model smoother than the susceptibility model and as a results it is difficult to estimate the dip of the structures. The AMT profile and the seismic section show the same dip direction (NE) for the eclogite bearing structures although due to the smoothing in the AMT model the dips seen in the seismic section cannot be recovered in the resistivity model.

While typical telemetry processing systems are fixed, ground-based assets, certain mission profiles or telemetry acquisition models may involve telemetry processing systems which reside on other platforms, such as ships, mobile vehicles, or airplanes. The design and implementation of telemetry processing systems for these platforms poses unique challenges, which may include requirements for unusual mechanical packaging, heightened electromagnetic sensitivity, or specialized electrical interfaces. This paper presents some of the key challenges involved in the design and implementation of an airborne telemetry processing system and discusses how lessons learned from solving these challenges may be applied to future telemetry processing system designs.

The main objective of this work is to aid coal mine planning by determining geological structures that affect mining such as faults, dykes and sills. Faults can displace the coal seams by breaking and throwing the coal seam on one side of the fault deeper; thereby constituting safety risks or even making exploitation uneconomical. Dykes are associated with devolatilisation of the coal around them. Both dykes and faults are also important in terms of groundwater management. The sills have the same devolatilisation effect as dykes but on a larger scale as they cover more area than the dykes. They also make mining difficult if one has to mine through them, especially if they are not weathered. The study was based on high resolution airborne magnetic data which was flown on selected areas in the Witbank coalfield. The combined areas cover a total of ~171001 hectares. Total field magnetic data were collected. The data were processed and gridded. The resulting total field magnetic grids were enhanced for better delineation of structures by: reducing the data to the pole, calculation of the first vertical derivatives and computation of the analytic signal. Using the enhanced grids together with other datasets; topographic maps, borehole log information and infrastructure information from the surrounding mines, the geological structures were interpreted. Intense geological activity is observed on the eastern areas of the coalfield (Belfast and Arnot). This is the region where numerous geological activities of different ages were recorded, e.g., the intrusion of Bushveld Complex, the Olifants River Dyke Swarm (ORDS) and the Karoo Basalts. Associated with the intense geological activity is the presence of dykes, faults and sills, which are observed throughout the areas. In the central region, Vandyksdrif area 1 reveals the pre-Karoo basement rocks (felsites and diabases of the Bushveld Igneous Complex) and Vandyksdrif area 2 reveals the Karoo dolerite in the form of a sill. The sill corresponds to the high elevation area on the digital terrain model data suggesting that the sill might be unweathered. Unfortunately, the borehole logs do not mention the state of the dolerite. The western areas reveal mainly the dolerite sill. Like in Vandryksdrif area 2, there is no mention of the state of the dolerite and the suspicion is that the dolerite is also unweathered there as well. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Geology / unrestricted

Atmospheric aerosols have been studied in great depth in regards to its metrological and chemical characterizations. Covering about 33% of the planet, the Global Dust Belt is the major source of wind-blown dust. Airborne aerosols play important roles in the Earth systems, impacting the marine and terrestrial ecosystems, human and organismal health. Aerosolized dust can carry a diverse range of microorganisms that may be transported across large distances. If surviving the transport, influence, as vectors supporting microbial populations or as pathogens to other organisms, the recipient ecosystems where they may be delivered through dry and wet depositions. Located in the middle of the global dust belt area, the Red Sea receives about 1.2 Mt of emitted dust particles per storm and a total of 6 Mt dust deposition from the annual 5-6 storm events, which may contain important loads of microorganisms. This dissertation characterizes the taxonomical compositions of airborne prokaryotes and micro-eukaryotes and their transport history in the dust-associated microbiome, and the functional profile of the airborne microorganisms. The samples required to achieve these goals were collected with a high-volume dust collector over the Red Sea from the coastal and offshore regions over two years. In addition, microbial communities sampled from the surface Red Sea water were used to establish the possible relationship, suggesting an exchange, between the airborne microbial communities and those in the Red Sea. Since relying on culture5 based analyses would take no notice of unculturable microorganism, culture-independent techniques were followed to detect the vast majority of the biological particles on the sampled air filters. However, large volumes of air should be collected due to the difficulty of acquiring enough genomic materials from the low density of airborne microorganisms for molecular assays. Sahara Deserts and deserts in the Arabian Peninsula represented the major sources of microbial inputs to the Red Sea atmosphere. Hence, a high number of allergens, plant and mammalian pathogens, human and animal parasites have been detected in airborne dust samples, which could be of concern. Functionally, dust-associated microbiome has exclusive lifestyle’s features that facilitate a resilient strategy to survive during airborne transportation, so-called “aeolian lifestyle.”