A eletroforese é uma técnica de separação que se baseia na migração diferencial de compostos iônicos em tubo capilar semicondutor, preenchido com solução eletrolítica, sob a influência de campo elétrico. Na introdução desta tese, princípios, métodos e diferentes tipos de técnicas de eletromigração em capilar foram discutidos. No primeiro capítulo são mostrados os resultados de otimização e validação de um método eletroforético para a determinação das glicoformas da ?1-Glicoproteína Ácida, um biomarcador. A otimização das condições eletroforéticas usando eletrólito de corrida constituído por tricina (10 mmol L-1), cloreto de sódio (10 mmol L-1), acetato de sódio (10 mmol L-1), ureia (7 mol L-1) e putrescina (3,9 mmol L-1), pH de 4,5, tensão de 30 kV, e temperatura de análise de 35 °C levou à resolução mínima de aproximadamente 1,5 entre as oito glicoformas encontradas. Todas as análises foram realizadas em um capilar de sílica fundida não revestido internamente, diâmetro interno de 50 µm e comprimento efetivo de 50,0 centímetros. Após a otimização, o método foi validado, em que a linearidade foi obtida no intervalo de 0,125 a 2,5 mg mL-1 (r >= 0,993). O coeficiente de variação (%) e erros relativos (%) obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão, respectivamente, intra e inter-dias foram inferiores a 15 %. Após a validação o método foi aplicado para a análise da ?1-AGP em amostras de plasma de pacientes com sepse, o qual demonstrou uma variabilidade na concentração da glicoformas. No segundo capítulo, um método simples, rápido e econômico por eletroforese capilar, foi desenvolvido e validado para a determinação de Interferon alfa-2a, um biofármaco, em formulação farmacêutica. Após otimização, os melhores resultados foram obtidos utilizando solução tampão tetraborato de sódio 30 mmol L-1, e pH 8,50, com 50 mmol L-1 de dodecil sulfato de sódio. A tensão aplicada foi de 25 kV e a injeção da amostra foi realizada no modo hidrodinâmico. Todas as análises foram realizadas em capilar de sílica fundida não revestido internamente, diâmetro interno de 75 µm e comprimento efetivo de 50,0 centímetros. Sob estas condições, a análise foi realizada em menos de 10 min. A linearidade foi obtida no intervalo de 0,41-1,54 MUI mL-1 (r >= 0,997). O coeficiente de variação (%) e erros relativos (%) obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão, respectivamente, intra e inter-dias foram inferiores a 5 %. Após a validação o método foi aplicado no controle de qualidade de formulações farmacêuticas contendo o Interferon alfa-2a. No terceiro capítulo, um método enantiosseletivo simples por eletroforese capilar usando ciclodrextrina como seletor quiral foi desenvolvido e validado para a determinação dos enantiômeros da isradipina, um bloqueador de canal de cálcio, em formulação farmacêutica. Além disso, foi realizado estudo de estabilidade dos enantiômeros da isradipina submetidos à oxidação, hidrólise (ácida e alcalina) e fotólise. A resolução completa dos enantiômeros da isradipina foi obtida em menos de 7 minutos utilizando solução tampão borato de sódio 15 mmol L-1 e pH 9,3 e sulfobutil éter-?-ciclodextrina (2,5 %, m/v) como seletor quiral. A tensão aplicada foi de 30 kV, e a injeção da amostra foi realizada no modo hidrodinâmico. Todas as análises foram efetuadas em capilar de sílica fundida não revestido internamente e diâmetro interno de 50 µm e comprimento efetivo de 50 centímetros. A linearidade foi obtida no intervalo de 25 - 150 µg mL-1 para ambos enantiômeros (r >= 0,998). O coeficiente de variação (%) e erros relativos (%) obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão, respectivamente, intra e inter-dias foram inferiores a 5 %. Após o método ter sido validado, este foi aplicado na análise de formulações farmacêuticas contendo os enantiômeros da isradipina. Nos estudos de estabilidade foi observada degradação dos enantiômeros em todas as condições avaliadas. Assim, de acordo com os resultados obtidos após o desenvolvimento dos três métodos, pode ser concluido que a eletroforese capilar é uma poderosa técnica de separação com aplicações na investigação, desenvolvimento, controle de qualidade e estudos de estabilidade de produtos farmacêuticos. Além disso, a eletroforese capilar é uma técnica complementar à cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, que oferece vantagens como simplicidade, rapidez, baixo custo e consumo de solventes e reagentes e diferentes mecanismos de seletividade, podendo ser aplicada em diferentes tipos de amostras. / Electrophoresis is a separation technique that is based on the differential migration of charged compounds in a semi-conductive medium under the influence of an electric field. In the introduction of this thesis, principles, methods, and different types of electromigrations techniques in capillary were discussed. In the first chapter shows the results of optimization and validation of a electrophoretic method for determining the glycoforms of ?1-AGP. The running buffer after optimization consisted of Tricine (10 mmol L-1), sodium chloride (10 mmol L-1), sodium acetate (10 mmol L-1), urea (7 mol L-1) and putrescine (3.9 mmol L-1), pH 4.5, voltage (30 kV), temperature and analysis (35 ° C) led to resolution of at least of 1.5 among the eight glycoforms found. All analyses were carried out in a fused-silica uncoated capillary with an id of 50 ?m and effective length of 50.0 cm. After optimization method was validated in which the linearity was obtained in the range to 0.125 to 2.5 mg mL-1 (r >= 0.993). The coefficient of variation (%) and relative errors (%) obtained in the studies of precision and accuracy, respectively (intra-day and inter-day) were less than 15 %. After method validation, the analysis of ?1-AGP in plasma of septic patients was performed, which showed variability in the concentration of glycoforms. In the second chapter a simple CE based method was developed and validated for the determination of Interferon alpha-2a in a pharmaceutical formulation. After optimization, the best results were obtained using 30 mmol L-1 tetraborate buffer at pH 8.50 with 50 mmol L-1 of sodium dodecyl sulfate. The applied voltage was 25 kV, and the sample injection was performed in the hydrodynamic mode. All analyses were carried out in a fused-silica uncoated capillary with an id of 75 ?m and effective length of 50.0 cm. Under these conditions, the analysis was achieved in less than 10 min. Linearity was obtained in the range 0.41-1.54 MIU mL-1 (r >= 0.997). The RSD (%) and relative errors (%) obtained in precision and accuracy studies (intra-day and inter-day) were lower than 5 %. Therefore, this method was found to be appropriate for controlling pharmaceutical formulations containing Interferon alpha-2a. In the third chapter a simple enantioselective method based on CE using CD as chiral selector was developed and validated for the determination of isradipine (IRD) enantiomers in a pharmaceutical formulation and for the determination of IRD enantiomers in degradation studies. After optimization, the best results were obtained using 15 mmol L-1 borate buffer at pH 9.3 and sulfobutyl ether-?-cyclodextrin (SBE-?-CD) (2.5 %, w/v) as chiral selector. The applied voltage was 30 kV, and the sample injection was performed in the hydrodynamic mode. All analyses were carried out in a fused-silica uncoated capillary with an internal diameter of 50 ?m and effective length of 50 cm. Under these conditions, a complete separation between IRD enantiomers was achieved in less than 7 min. Linearity was obtained in the range 25 - 150 ?g mL-1 for both enantiomers (r >= 0.998). The RSD (%) and relative errors (%) obtained in precision and accuracy studies (intra-day and inter-day) were lower than 5 %. Therefore, this method was found to be appropriate for controlling pharmaceutical formulations containing IRD enantiomers and the assay was considered stability indicating. The drug was subjected to oxidation, hydrolysis and photolysis. In all stress conditions the drug presented considerable degradation. According to such results, the capillary electrophoresis showed is a powerful separation technique to research and development, quality control, and stability studies of pharmaceuticals. CE offers several advantages over high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), a technique commonly used in pharmaceutical analysis. These include simplicity, rapid analysis, automation, different mechanisms for selectivity, and low cost.

A eletroforese é uma técnica de separação que se baseia na migração diferencial de compostos iônicos em tubo capilar semicondutor, preenchido com solução eletrolítica, sob a influência de campo elétrico. Na introdução desta tese, princípios, métodos e diferentes tipos de técnicas de eletromigração em capilar foram discutidos. No primeiro capítulo são mostrados os resultados de otimização e validação de um método eletroforético para a determinação das glicoformas da ?1-Glicoproteína Ácida, um biomarcador. A otimização das condições eletroforéticas usando eletrólito de corrida constituído por tricina (10 mmol L-1), cloreto de sódio (10 mmol L-1), acetato de sódio (10 mmol L-1), ureia (7 mol L-1) e putrescina (3,9 mmol L-1), pH de 4,5, tensão de 30 kV, e temperatura de análise de 35 °C levou à resolução mínima de aproximadamente 1,5 entre as oito glicoformas encontradas. Todas as análises foram realizadas em um capilar de sílica fundida não revestido internamente, diâmetro interno de 50 µm e comprimento efetivo de 50,0 centímetros. Após a otimização, o método foi validado, em que a linearidade foi obtida no intervalo de 0,125 a 2,5 mg mL-1 (r >= 0,993). O coeficiente de variação (%) e erros relativos (%) obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão, respectivamente, intra e inter-dias foram inferiores a 15 %. Após a validação o método foi aplicado para a análise da ?1-AGP em amostras de plasma de pacientes com sepse, o qual demonstrou uma variabilidade na concentração da glicoformas. No segundo capítulo, um método simples, rápido e econômico por eletroforese capilar, foi desenvolvido e validado para a determinação de Interferon alfa-2a, um biofármaco, em formulação farmacêutica. Após otimização, os melhores resultados foram obtidos utilizando solução tampão tetraborato de sódio 30 mmol L-1, e pH 8,50, com 50 mmol L-1 de dodecil sulfato de sódio. A tensão aplicada foi de 25 kV e a injeção da amostra foi realizada no modo hidrodinâmico. Todas as análises foram realizadas em capilar de sílica fundida não revestido internamente, diâmetro interno de 75 µm e comprimento efetivo de 50,0 centímetros. Sob estas condições, a análise foi realizada em menos de 10 min. A linearidade foi obtida no intervalo de 0,41-1,54 MUI mL-1 (r >= 0,997). O coeficiente de variação (%) e erros relativos (%) obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão, respectivamente, intra e inter-dias foram inferiores a 5 %. Após a validação o método foi aplicado no controle de qualidade de formulações farmacêuticas contendo o Interferon alfa-2a. No terceiro capítulo, um método enantiosseletivo simples por eletroforese capilar usando ciclodrextrina como seletor quiral foi desenvolvido e validado para a determinação dos enantiômeros da isradipina, um bloqueador de canal de cálcio, em formulação farmacêutica. Além disso, foi realizado estudo de estabilidade dos enantiômeros da isradipina submetidos à oxidação, hidrólise (ácida e alcalina) e fotólise. A resolução completa dos enantiômeros da isradipina foi obtida em menos de 7 minutos utilizando solução tampão borato de sódio 15 mmol L-1 e pH 9,3 e sulfobutil éter-?-ciclodextrina (2,5 %, m/v) como seletor quiral. A tensão aplicada foi de 30 kV, e a injeção da amostra foi realizada no modo hidrodinâmico. Todas as análises foram efetuadas em capilar de sílica fundida não revestido internamente e diâmetro interno de 50 µm e comprimento efetivo de 50 centímetros. A linearidade foi obtida no intervalo de 25 - 150 µg mL-1 para ambos enantiômeros (r >= 0,998). O coeficiente de variação (%) e erros relativos (%) obtidos nos estudos de precisão e exatidão, respectivamente, intra e inter-dias foram inferiores a 5 %. Após o método ter sido validado, este foi aplicado na análise de formulações farmacêuticas contendo os enantiômeros da isradipina. Nos estudos de estabilidade foi observada degradação dos enantiômeros em todas as condições avaliadas. Assim, de acordo com os resultados obtidos após o desenvolvimento dos três métodos, pode ser concluido que a eletroforese capilar é uma poderosa técnica de separação com aplicações na investigação, desenvolvimento, controle de qualidade e estudos de estabilidade de produtos farmacêuticos. Além disso, a eletroforese capilar é uma técnica complementar à cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, que oferece vantagens como simplicidade, rapidez, baixo custo e consumo de solventes e reagentes e diferentes mecanismos de seletividade, podendo ser aplicada em diferentes tipos de amostras. / Electrophoresis is a separation technique that is based on the differential migration of charged compounds in a semi-conductive medium under the influence of an electric field. In the introduction of this thesis, principles, methods, and different types of electromigrations techniques in capillary were discussed. In the first chapter shows the results of optimization and validation of a electrophoretic method for determining the glycoforms of ?1-AGP. The running buffer after optimization consisted of Tricine (10 mmol L-1), sodium chloride (10 mmol L-1), sodium acetate (10 mmol L-1), urea (7 mol L-1) and putrescine (3.9 mmol L-1), pH 4.5, voltage (30 kV), temperature and analysis (35 ° C) led to resolution of at least of 1.5 among the eight glycoforms found. All analyses were carried out in a fused-silica uncoated capillary with an id of 50 ?m and effective length of 50.0 cm. After optimization method was validated in which the linearity was obtained in the range to 0.125 to 2.5 mg mL-1 (r >= 0.993). The coefficient of variation (%) and relative errors (%) obtained in the studies of precision and accuracy, respectively (intra-day and inter-day) were less than 15 %. After method validation, the analysis of ?1-AGP in plasma of septic patients was performed, which showed variability in the concentration of glycoforms. In the second chapter a simple CE based method was developed and validated for the determination of Interferon alpha-2a in a pharmaceutical formulation. After optimization, the best results were obtained using 30 mmol L-1 tetraborate buffer at pH 8.50 with 50 mmol L-1 of sodium dodecyl sulfate. The applied voltage was 25 kV, and the sample injection was performed in the hydrodynamic mode. All analyses were carried out in a fused-silica uncoated capillary with an id of 75 ?m and effective length of 50.0 cm. Under these conditions, the analysis was achieved in less than 10 min. Linearity was obtained in the range 0.41-1.54 MIU mL-1 (r >= 0.997). The RSD (%) and relative errors (%) obtained in precision and accuracy studies (intra-day and inter-day) were lower than 5 %. Therefore, this method was found to be appropriate for controlling pharmaceutical formulations containing Interferon alpha-2a. In the third chapter a simple enantioselective method based on CE using CD as chiral selector was developed and validated for the determination of isradipine (IRD) enantiomers in a pharmaceutical formulation and for the determination of IRD enantiomers in degradation studies. After optimization, the best results were obtained using 15 mmol L-1 borate buffer at pH 9.3 and sulfobutyl ether-?-cyclodextrin (SBE-?-CD) (2.5 %, w/v) as chiral selector. The applied voltage was 30 kV, and the sample injection was performed in the hydrodynamic mode. All analyses were carried out in a fused-silica uncoated capillary with an internal diameter of 50 ?m and effective length of 50 cm. Under these conditions, a complete separation between IRD enantiomers was achieved in less than 7 min. Linearity was obtained in the range 25 - 150 ?g mL-1 for both enantiomers (r >= 0.998). The RSD (%) and relative errors (%) obtained in precision and accuracy studies (intra-day and inter-day) were lower than 5 %. Therefore, this method was found to be appropriate for controlling pharmaceutical formulations containing IRD enantiomers and the assay was considered stability indicating. The drug was subjected to oxidation, hydrolysis and photolysis. In all stress conditions the drug presented considerable degradation. According to such results, the capillary electrophoresis showed is a powerful separation technique to research and development, quality control, and stability studies of pharmaceuticals. CE offers several advantages over high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), a technique commonly used in pharmaceutical analysis. These include simplicity, rapid analysis, automation, different mechanisms for selectivity, and low cost.

No description available.

Die Erkrankung Huntington s Chorea ist eine autosomal dominant vererbte Erkrankung, die gewöhnlich im mittleren Lebensabschnitt beginnt und unausweichlich zum Tode führt. In unserem Bestreben, Proteine zu identifizieren, welche an Prozessen "Upstream" oder "Downstream" des krankheitsverursachenden Proteins Huntingtin beteiligt sind, wurde das Proteom eines sehr gut etablierten Mausmodells mit Hilfe der Großgel 2D-Elektrophorese untersucht. Es konnte zum ersten Mal auf Proteinebene nachweisen werden, dass die Expression von zwei Serinproteasehemmern, alpha1-Antitrypsin und Contraspin und darüber hinaus eines Chaperons, alphaB-Kristallin, im Verlauf der Erkrankung abnimmt. Reduzierte Expression von alpha1-Antitrypsin und Contraspin konnte in Gehirn, Leber, Herz und Testes nahe dem Endstadium der Erkrankung nachgewiesen werden. Hier ist es wichtig festzustellen, dass die Expressionsabnahme von alpha1-Antitrypsin im Gehirn der Abnahme in der Leber im Herzen und in den Testes vorangeht. Eine verminderte Expression des Chaperons alphaB-Kristallin wurde nur im Gehirn gefunden. Für ein weiteres Protein, das Major Urinary Protein, wurde eine verminderte Expression in der Leber und im Urin von betroffenen Mäusen festgestellt. Damit konnte demonstriert werden, dass die Erkrankung auf Proteinebene auch ein Protein, das im Gehirn von transgenen Mäusen nicht vorkommt, beeinflusst. Bei Untersuchungen am Menschen wurde in drei Gehirnregionen von Postmortem-Gehirnen von Huntington s Chorea Patienten eine veränderte Expression von alpha1-Antitrypsin festgestellt. Wenn gewährleistet werden kann, dass die Konzentration von alpha1-Antitrypsin und alphaB-Kristallin während Huntington s Chorea im Gewebe nicht absinkt, könnte dies vielleicht neuronalen Zelltod verhindern und somit bei der Verzögerung des Krankheitsverlaufs nutzbringend eingesetzt werden. / Huntington disease is an autosomal dominantly inherited disease that usually starts in midlife and inevitably leads to death. In an effort to identify proteins involved in processes upstream or downstream of the disease causing huntingtin, the proteome of a well-established mouse model was studied by large-gel 2D electrophoresis. It could be demonstrated for the first time at the protein level that two serin protease inhibitors, alpha1-antitrypsin and contraspin and the chaperone alphaB-crystallin decrease in expression over the course of disease. Importantly, the alpha1-antitrypsin decrease in the brain precedes that in liver, heart and testes in mice. Reduced expression of alpha1-antitrypsin and contraspin could be detected in the brain, liver heart and testes close to terminal disease. Decreased expression of the chaperone alphaB-crystallin was found exclusively in the brain. Reduced expression of the liver specific major urinary proteins not found in the brain, was seen in affected mice, demonstrating that the disease exerts its influence on a protein not present in the brain of transgenic mice at the protein level. When investigating three human brain regions obtained post-mortem from Huntington s disease patients, alpha1-antitrypsin expression was also altered. Maintaining alpha1-antitrypsin and alphaB-crystallin availability during the course of Huntington s disease might prevent neuronal cell death and therefore could be useful in delaying the disease progression.

The main objective of this thesis is to examine the trade-offs between security and efficiency within symmetric ciphers. This includes the influence that block ciphers have on the new generation of word-based stream ciphers. By incorporating block-cipher like components into their designs, word-based stream ciphers have experienced hundreds-fold improvement in speed over bit-based stream ciphers, without any observable security degradation. The thesis also emphasizes the importance of keying issues in block and stream ciphers, showing that by reusing components of the principal cipher algorithm in the keying algorithm, security can be enhanced without loss of key-agility or expanding footprint in software memory. Firstly, modern block ciphers from four recent cipher competitions are surveyed and categorized according to criteria that includes the high-level structure of the block cipher, the method in which non-linearity is instilled into each round, and the strength of the key schedule. In assessing the last criterion, a classification by Carter [45] is adopted and modified to improve its consistency. The classification is used to demonstrate that the key schedule of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) [62] is surprisingly flimsy for a national standard. The claim is supported with statistical evidence that shows the key schedule suffers from bit leakage and lacks sufficient diffusion. The thesis contains a replacement key schedule that reuses components from the cipher algorithm, leveraging existing analysis to improve security, and reducing the cipher's implementation footprint while maintaining key agility. The key schedule is analyzed from the perspective of an efficiency-security tradeoff, showing that the new schedule rectifies an imbalance towards e±ciency present in the original. The thesis contains a discussion of the evolution of stream ciphers, focusing on the migration from bit-based to word-based stream ciphers, from which follows a commensurate improvement in design flexibility and software performance. It examines the influence that block ciphers, and in particular the AES, have had upon the development of word-based stream ciphers. The thesis includes a concise literature review of recent styles of cryptanalytic attack upon stream ciphers. Also, claims are refuted that one prominent word-based stream cipher, RC4, suffers from a bias in the first byte of each keystream. The thesis presents a divide and conquer attack against Alpha1, an irregularly clocked bit-based stream cipher with a 128-bit state. The dominating aspect of the divide and conquer attack is a correlation attack on the longest register. The internal state of the remaining registers is determined by utilizing biases in the clocking taps and launching a guess and determine attack. The overall complexity of the attack is 261 operations with text requirements of 35,000 bits and memory requirements of 2 29.8 bits. MUGI is a 64-bit word-based cipher with a large Non-linear Feedback Shift Register (NLFSR) and an additional non-linear state. In standard benchmarks, MUGI appears to su®er from poor key agility because it is implemented on an architecture for which it is not designed, and because its NLFSR is too large relative to the size of its master key. An unusual feature of its key initialization algorithm is described. A variant of MUGI, entitled MUGI-M, is proposed to enhance key agility, ostensibly without any loss of security. The thesis presents a new word-based stream cipher called Dragon. This cipher uses a large internal NLFSR in conjunction with a non-linear filter to produce 64 bits of keystream in one round. The non-linear filter looks very much like the round function of a typical modern block cipher. Dragon has a native word size of 32 bits, and uses very simple operations, including addition, exclusive-or and s-boxes. Together these ensure high performance on modern day processors such as the Intel Pentium family. Finally, a set of guidelines is provided for designing and implementing symmetric ciphers on modern processors, using the Intel Pentium 4 as a case study. Particular attention is given to understanding the architecture of the processor, including features such as its register set and size, the throughput and latencies of its instruction set, and the memory layouts and speeds. General optimization rules are given, including how to choose fast primitives for use within the cipher. The thesis describes design decisions that were made for the Dragon cipher with respect to implementation on the Intel Pentium 4. Block Ciphers, Word-based Stream Ciphers, Cipher Design, Cipher Implementa- tion, -

<div>Large protein molecules are abundant in biological cells but are very difficult to study in physiological conditions due to molecular disorder. For large proteins, most structural information is obtained in crystalline states which can be achieved in certain conditions at very low temperature. X-ray and neutron crystallography methods can then be used for determination of crystalline structures at atomic level. However, in solution at room or physiological temperatures such highly resolved descriptions cannot be obtained except in very few cases. Scattering methods that can be used to study this type of structures at room temperature include small-angle x-ray and neutron scattering. These methods are used here to study two distinct proteins that are both classified as glycoproteins, which are a large class of proteins with diverse biological functions. In this study, two specific plasma glycoproteins were used: Fibrinogen (340 kDa) and Alpha 1-Antitrypsin or A1AT (52 kDa). These proteins have been chosen based on the fact that they have a propensity to form very large molecular aggregates due to their tendency to polymerize. One goal of this project is to show that for such complex structures, a combination of scattering methods that include SAXS, SANS, and DLS can address important structural and interaction questions despite the fact that atomic resolution cannot be obtained as in crystallography. A1AT protein has been shown to have protective roles of lung cells against emphysema, while fibrinogen is a major factor in the blood clotting process. A systematic approach to study these proteins interactions with lipid membranes and other proteins, using contrast-matching small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS), is presented here. A series of structural reference points for each protein in solution were determined by performing measurements under osmotic stress controlled by the addition of polyethylene glycol-1,500 MW (PEG 1500) in the samples. Osmotic pressure changes the free energy of the molecular mixture and has consequences on the structure and the interaction of molecular aggregates. In particular, the measured radius of gyration (Rg) for A1AT shows a sharp structural transition when the concentration of PEG 1500 is between 33 wt\% and 36 wt\%. Similarly, a significant structural change was observed for fibrinogen when the concentration of PEG 1500 was above 40 wt\%. This analysis is applied to a study of A1AT interacting with lipid membranes and to a study of fibrinogen polymerization in the presence of the enzyme thrombin, which catalyzes the formation of blood clots. The experimental approach presented here and the applications to specific questions show that an appropriate combination of scattering methods can produce useful information on the behavior and the interactions of large protein systems in physiological conditions despite the lower resolution compared to crystallography.</div>