This thesis first develops a medium-voltage grid code outlining stringent requirements for low-voltage ride-through, high-voltage ride-through and ancillary services based on anticipated grid requirements for distributed energy resources (DER)s. A 100 kW generating capacity DER study system is then formulated taking into consideration key design constraints as motivated by the medium-voltage grid code. Local DER system controls are developed that enable existing systems employing conventional current-control for the grid-interfacing voltage-sourced-converters to comply with the grid code. A supervisory controller is proposed that allows multiple DER units and loads to operate collectively as a DER system with a single point of common coupling. The impact of transformer configurations, fault types and fault locations on DER systems are quantified through a comprehensive fault study using the PSCAD/EMTDC software package. A subset of these fault scenarios are identified for rapid screening of DER system compliance against low-voltage ride-through requirements.

This thesis first develops a medium-voltage grid code outlining stringent requirements for low-voltage ride-through, high-voltage ride-through and ancillary services based on anticipated grid requirements for distributed energy resources (DER)s. A 100 kW generating capacity DER study system is then formulated taking into consideration key design constraints as motivated by the medium-voltage grid code. Local DER system controls are developed that enable existing systems employing conventional current-control for the grid-interfacing voltage-sourced-converters to comply with the grid code. A supervisory controller is proposed that allows multiple DER units and loads to operate collectively as a DER system with a single point of common coupling. The impact of transformer configurations, fault types and fault locations on DER systems are quantified through a comprehensive fault study using the PSCAD/EMTDC software package. A subset of these fault scenarios are identified for rapid screening of DER system compliance against low-voltage ride-through requirements.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:30:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-04-08Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T18:40:58Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 manso_jcg_dr_ilha.pdf: 1797560 bytes, checksum: 27c1272d6d4916bb798bc0d05ed927c8 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Ensino Pesquisa e Extensão de Ilha Solteira (FEPISA) / Esta tese visa ao estudo da valorização de serviços ancilares de reserva, particularmente, a reserva utilizada na regulação de freqüência e que é fornecida pelos geradores hidrelétricos. O objetivo principal do trabalho é desenvolver propostas que indiquem os custos reais desses serviços. Na valorização desses custos, busca-se motivar as empresas geradoras para que assumam a responsabilidade pela prestação de tais serviços, assim como garantir uma remuneração apropriada. Essa valorização é realizada em função da disponibilidade e do uso da reserva, sob uma operação segura e econômica do sistema. Para alcançar o objetivo proposto, inicialmente se realiza uma revisão das características técnicas e dos métodos de valorização dos serviços de reserva em diferentes sistemas. Posteriormente, ilustram-se as características do setor elétrico brasileiro, com a finalidade de contextualizar a valorização no marco de regulação , comercialização e operação correspondentes. Seguidamente, apresentam-se duas propostas de valorização. A primeira considera o ponto de vista de um agente gerador, cujo objetivo é estabelecer o valor do serviço a partir dos custos incorridos no fornecimento. Esses custos incluem, principalmente, os custos pela disponibilidade e pelo uso do serviço. Dentro desses componentes de custo, destaca-se o custo por perdas de eficiência, o qual é calculado utilizando um algoritmo de despacho ótimo de unidades. Essa abordagem é aplicada no cálculo do custo da reserva na usina hidrelétrica de Ilha Solteira. Nesse cálculo são utilizados dados da Companhia Energética de São Paulo - CESP. A segunda proposta considera o ponto de vista do operador de rede, em um ambiente de mercado, no qual os agentes participantes podem ofertar pela disponibilidade da reserva. Para a atribuição dessa reserva utiliza-se um despacho ótimo hidrelétrico, que inclui rest / This work presents a reserve ancillary services pricing research. Particularly, the reserve that is used for frequency regulation and that is provided by hydroelectric generators. The development of pricing methodologies, that show real reserve delivery costs, is the main target of this project. Ancillary services pricing procures incentives to motivate agents to take responsibilities in the service supply and ensuring an appropriated remuneration. This pricing is based on the use and availability costs of reserve; under an economic and reliable system operation. In order to do that, firstly an overview of technical characteristics and pricing methods of the ancillary services in different systems is presented. Then, in order to fit this pricing methodology to the corresponding regulation, commercialization and operation rules, an introduction of the Brazilian electrical sector is realized. Next, two reserve ancillary services pricing methods are presented. The first one considers a hydraulic generator point of view. In this case, the aim is to set up the real value of the services by mean of a generator costs analysis. These costs include, basically, availability and use costs. Inside these cost components, efficiency costs are highlighted, and a single generator unit commitment dispatch is used to calculate them. This proposal is applied to calculate the ancillary service reserve costs in the Ilha Solteira hydroelectric generator, using data from the Companhia Energ´etica of S˜ao Paulo (CESP). The second pricing method considers the operator system point of view, under a market environment. In these circumstances, agents are free to set up a price offer for the availability of the reserve. To attribute the reserve, an optimal hydroelectric dispatch is used, considering electrical and hydraulic constraints. This methodology is tested in two systems. The first one represents a didactic three bus

abstract: This research develops heuristics for scheduling electric power production amid uncertainty. Reliability is becoming more difficult to manage due to growing uncertainty from renewable resources. This challenge is compounded by the risk of resource outages, which can occur any time and without warning. Stochastic optimization is a promising tool but remains computationally intractable for large systems. The models used in industry instead schedule for the forecast and withhold generation reserve for scenario response, but they are blind to how this reserve may be constrained by network congestion. This dissertation investigates more effective heuristics to improve economics and reliability in power systems where congestion is a concern. Two general approaches are developed. Both approximate the effects of recourse decisions without actually solving a stochastic model. The first approach procures more reserve whenever approximate recourse policies stress the transmission network. The second approach procures reserve at prime locations by generalizing the existing practice of reserve disqualification. The latter approach is applied for feasibility and is later extended to limit scenario costs. Testing demonstrates expected cost improvements around 0.5%-1.0% for the IEEE 73-bus test case, which can translate to millions of dollars per year even for modest systems. The heuristics developed in this dissertation perform somewhere between established deterministic and stochastic models: providing an economic benefit over current practices without substantially increasing computational times. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Industrial Engineering 2015

[pt] Este trabalho apresenta três métodos para a identificação dos usuários da rede de transmissão que são beneficiados por novas ou já existentes fontes de potência reativa e, em conseqüência, a repartição do custo de capital entre eles. A metodologia para se obter os fatores de alocação de custos, aplicados aos agentes beneficiados, utiliza a análise de um conjunto de contingências de transmissão com suas respectivas probabilidades de ocorrência. Cada um dos métodos propostos utiliza um diferente critério para se medir os benefícios decorrentes da presença de equipamentos de suporte de potência reativa. Os critérios mencionados são os desvios de tensão, os cortes de carga e as injeções de potência reativa, bastante utilizados em estudos de planejamento da operação e da expansão, assim como em análise de confiabilidade de sistemas de potência. A aplicação dos métodos é ilustrada através de estudos de casos com dois sistemas, um sistema simplificado de 5 barras e o IEEE-Reliability Test System (24 barras), no qual um horizonte de três anos é considerado para se fazer a remuneração do equipamento de compensação reativa. / [en] This report presents three methods to identify the transmission consumers in power systems that take advantage of new or existent reactive power sources and, consequently, to allocate its acquisition costs among these consumers. The methodology to obtain the allocation factors, applied to each of the agents, takes into account the analysis of a transmission outages set with their respective probabilities. Each one of the proposed methods uses a different criterion to measure the benefit due to the reactive support provided by such equipments. The mentioned criteria are: voltage deviation, load shedding and reactive power injection. All these methodologies are very used in operational and expansion planning studies, as well as power systems reliability analysis. The application of the methods is shown in case studies with two systems, being the first a 5 bus simplified system and the other, the IEEE-Reliability Test System (24 buses), in which a three years horizon is considered for the reactive power compensation equipment remuneration. / [es] Este trabajo presenta tres métodos para la identificación de los usuários de la red de transmisión que se benefician con las fuentes (nuevas o existenten) de potencia reactiva y, en consecuencia, la repartición del costo de capital entre eles. Hasta aqui, lla metodología para obtener los factores de alocación de costos, aplicados a los agentes beneficiados, utiliza el análisis de un conjunto de contingencias de transmisión con sus respectivas probabilidades de ocurrencia. Cada uno de los métodos propuestos utiliza un critério diferente para medir los beneficios decorrentes de la presencia de equipamentos de soporte de potencia reactiva. Los critérios mencionados son los desvíos de tensión, los cortes de carga y las inyecciones de potencia reactiva, bastante utilizados en estudios de planificación de operación y expansión, así como en análisis de confiabilidad de sistemas de potencia. La aplicación de los métodos se ilustrada a través de estudios de casos con dos sistemas, un sistema simplificado de 5 barras y el IEE Reliability Test Systiene (24 barras), en el cual se considera un horizonte de tres años para realizar la remuneración del equipo de compensación reactiva.

Demand-side resources are taking an increasingly prominent role in providing essential grid services once provided by thermal power plants. This thesis considers the economic feasibility and environmental effects of integrating demand-side resources into the electric grid with consideration given to the diversity of market and environmental conditions that can affect their behavior. Chapter 2 explores the private economics and system-level carbon dioxide reduction when using demand response for spinning reserve. Steady end uses like lighting are more than twice as profitable as seasonal end uses because spinning reserve is needed year-round. Avoided carbon emission damages from using demand response instead of fossil fuel generation for spinning reserve are sufficient to justify incentives for demand response resources. Chapter 3 quantifies the system-level net emissions rate and private economics of behind-the-meter energy storage. Net emission rates are lower than marginal emission rates for power plants and in-line with estimates of net emission rates from grid-level storage. The economics are favorable for many buildings in regions with high demand charges like California and New York, even without subsidies. Future penetration into regions with average charges like Pennsylvania will depend greatly on installation cost reductions and wholesale prices for ancillary services. Chapter 4 outlines a novel econometric model to quantify potential revenues from energy storage that reduces demand charges. The model is based on a novel predictive metric that is derived from the building’s load profile. Normalized revenue estimates are independent of the power capacity of the battery holding other performance characteristics equal, which can be used to calculate the profit-maximizing storage size. Chapter 5 analyzes the economic feasibility of flow batteries in the commercial and industrial market. Flow batteries at a 4-hour duration must be less expensive on a dollar per installed kWh basis, often by 20-30%, to break even with shorter duration li-ion or lead-acid despite allowing for deeper depth of discharge and superior cycle life. These results are robust to assumptions of tariff rates, battery round-trip efficiencies, amount of solar generation and whether the battery can participate in the wholesale energy and ancillary services markets.

[pt] No modelo econômico tradicional, o sistema elétrico podia ser constituído por empresas verticalizadas, isto é, os serviços de geração, transmissão e distribuição podiam ser providos por uma mesma empresa. Nesta estrutura, serviços como reserva de potência, suporte de reativos, reserva de transmissão, ou seja, os chamados Serviços Ancilares à operação do sistema elétrico, não eram computados com custos específicos a serem restituídos, já que os mesmos encontravam-se agregados ao preço da energia elétrica. No novo modelo econômico, onde cada empresa presta um tipo de serviço, é crescente a importância da caracterização de cada Serviço Ancilar. Definidos os prestadores do serviço e usuários, torna-se explícita a necessidade de uma estrutura de mercado para aquisição e revenda do Serviço Ancilar. Este trabalho propõe um mecanismo de mercado para compra e venda de Serviços de Reserva de Potência Operativa por intermédio de um agente de mercado sem fins lucrativos. Este é baseado no mecanismo praticado pelo California Independent System Operator e, devidamente adaptado, pode ser aplicado ao sistema elétrico brasileiro. As principais adaptações são: i) o ajuste da venda para permitir uma distribuição justa da vantagem econômica obtida com a compra considerando os mercados interdependentes, e ii) o ajuste da venda para que os compradores somente das reservas R1 e R2 afetem os preços de R1 e R2, e não os preços de R3 e R4. / [en] In the previous structure of the Brazilian power sector, the economic model was such that the same company could provide generation, transmission and distribution services. In this model, services such as power reserve, reactive power support and transmission reserve, i.e., the so-called Ancillary Services to the operation of the electric system, were not considered explicitly. Therefore, no specific costs had to be paid as they were aggregated to the final energy price. In the new structure of the power sector, where each company provides a different type of service, the distinction of each Ancillary Service becomes a very important issue to the energy business. Once defined the service providers and users, it is evident the need of a market structure for selling and buying the service. This work suggests a market mechanism for selling and buying the Power Operative Reserve Service through a non-profit market agent. This proposal is based on the California`s Independent System Operator mechanism and, if properly adapted, can be applied to the Brazilian Power System. The main adaptations are: i) the adjustments of the sale price to allow a fair distribution of the economic advantage gotten with the purchase considering the interdependent markets, and ii) the adjustments of the sale price for the purchasers of only R1 and R2 reserves to affect only the prices of R1 and R2 and not the prices of R3 and R4. / [es] En el modelo económico tradicional, el sistema eléctrico podía ser constituido por empresas verticalizadas, es decir, los servicios de generación, transmisión y distribuición podían pertenecer a una misma empresa. En esta extructura, servicios como reserva de potencia, soporte de reactivos, reserva de transmisión, o sea, los llamados Servicios Auxiliares a la operación del sistema eléctrico, no eran calculados con costos específicos que serían restituidos, ya que éstos se encontraban agregados al precio de la energía eléctrica. En el nuevo modelo económico, donde cada empresa presta un tipo de servicio, cresce la importáncia de la caracterización de cada Servicio Auxiliar. Una vez definidos los prestadores del servicio y los usuarios, se necesita de una extructura de mercado para adquisición y revenda del Servicio Auxiliar. Este trabajo propone un mecanismo de mercado para compra y venda de Servicios de Reserva de Potencia Operativas por intermedio de un agente de mercado sen fines lucractivos. Este es basado en el mecanismo praticado por el California Independent Systen Operator y, debidamente adaptado, puede ser aplicado al sistema eléctrico brasilero. Las principales adaptaciones son: i) ajuste de la venda para permitir una distribuición justa de la ventaja económica obtenida con la compra considerando los mercados interdependientes, y ii) el ajuste de la venda para que los compradores solamente de las reservas R1 y R2 afecten los precios de R1 y R2, y no los precios de R3 y R4.

The co-optimization of energy and reserves has become a standard requirement in integrated markets. This is due to the inverse relationship that exists between energy and reserves. The provision of reserves generally reduces the amount of primary energy a generating unit can produce and vice versa. This suggests that these products should be procured through a simultaneous auction to ensure optimal procurement and pricing. Furthermore, forward markets dictate that this co-optimization of energy and reserves be done over a multi-period planning horizon. This dissertation addresses the problem of optimal scheduling and pricing of energy and reserves over a multi-period planning horizon using an optimal power flow formulation. The extension of the problem from a static optimization problem to a dynamic optimization problem is presented. Price definitions for energy and reserves in terms of shadow prices emanating from the optimization algorithm are provided. It is shown that the proposed formulation of prices leads to the cascading of reserve prices and eliminates the problem of “price reversal” where lower quality reserves are priced higher than higher ii quality reserves. Pricing conditions are also established for the downward substitution of higher quality reserves for lower quality reserves. The proposed pricing formulations are tested on the IEEE 24 Bus Reliability Test System and on the South African power network. The simulated results show that cascading of reserve prices does occur and that prices of different types of reserves are equal when downward substitution of reserves occurs. Zonal reserve requirements result in higher energy and reserve prices, which in term result in higher procurement costs to the system operator and higher profits to market participants. Congestion on the network also results in higher procurement costs to the system operator and higher profits to market participants in the case of zonal pricing of reserves. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering / unrestricted

The English Higher Education system continues to face many political and organisational changes with respect to funding, fees, student numbers and quality controls. Within this changing landscape, the introduction of up to £9,000 annual tuition fees for Home/EU undergraduates probably has the highest impact on students’ perceptions, their decision-making and, most of all, expectations in relation to their university experience. To investigate the implications of recent changes, an exploratory research approach is applied, using mixed methods across three distinct research phases. An initial study aims to measure the expectations of commencing students in light of the fee changes and to explore how demographic and other personal characteristics influence student expectations in relation to their overall university experience and specifically to the ancillary services offered by Higher Education Institutions. Through this, services related to student employability are identified as an area of increasing concern for students. The second study aims to further investigate this area from a student perspective through the exploration of students’ motivations to participate in an extra-curricular employability programme. The expectations regarding such a programme are also investigated prior to the programme and the satisfaction levels of students after the completion of the programme are evaluated. The analysis of the second study suggests that confidence is a key factor within the context of student employability. Consequently, the final study aims to explore the role and importance of confidence within employability from a student point-of-view and to evaluate how confidence and employability may be developed throughout the university experience. From this study, it is argued that Higher Education Institutions should focus on the development of confidence within students in order to improve their employability. As an outcome, recommendations are formed on how to support such development through general and course-specific activities within and outside the curriculum. Overall, the research addresses various gaps within the fields of interest, particularly through the focus on a student perspective, and provides methodological, theoretical and practical contributions. The different stages of the research suggest that it is important to the competitiveness and strength of universities to understand student expectations and to design and develop high-quality university experiences which meet the needs and demands of students. Based on the data collected, recommendations are given on how Higher Education Institutions can manage and meet student expectations and develop activities to enhance student employability and increase confidence.

This research focuses on frequency control ancillary services in large interconnected systems. It analyses and assesses possible alternatives for optimal and innovative solutions of major frequency control issues in large interconnected systems within liberalised electricity markets. Possible improvements in the performance of frequency control are identified. A framework of frequency control ancillary services in large interconnected systems by including loads and wind generation is also proposed.The research has been motivated by the paucity of research in power system dynamics focusing on large interconnected systems such as the European synchronous system and the Eastern interconnection which experience important frequency control challenges. These challenges include:- Decline in frequency response in the Eastern interconnection - Deterministic frequency deviations observed at the top of the hours in the European synchronous systemFrequency control issues became critical when electricity markets were deregulated and frequency control became an ancillary service with a decidedly commercial focus. This commercial focus has spawned a lot of work on frequency control markets and economics whereas not much research has been devoted to dynamic simulation of large interconnected systems. Apart from this commercial focus, frequency control in large interconnected systems is still based on historical practices mainly because changes suggested in the literature can be barely applied in large interconnected systems. This is essentially because dynamic simulation studies are uncorrelated with frequency control markets and economics. More specifically, dynamic studies do not take into account the characteristics of each reserve activated and also the way the reserve is activated. With the deregulation of the electricity market, reserve is considered as a product and not necessarily a response provided by a unit. The main objectives of this research therefore are to solve critical frequency control issues in large interconnected deregulated electricity systems, which may present potential economic benefits. To achieve these objectives, frequency control in large interconnected systems is studied by considering on one hand frequency control theory and on the other hand its implementation in practice taking account of frequency control ancillary service markets as well as the economics and practical consequences of frequency control. This approach is necessary to accommodate the future evolution of frequency control in large interconnected systems. The proposed approach is illustrated through a model of frequency control in the European synchronous system, where practices are better known, are clearly standardised and also where frequency data has been obtained.