The proteasome, a multiprotease complex, is clinically validated as an anticancer target by the FDA approval of bortezomib and carfilzomib for the treatment of multiple myeloma. The emergence of resistance to proteasome inhibitors however remains a major clinical challenge. Recently, distinct types of proteasomes termed ‘intermediate proteasomes’, which contain unconventional mixtures of catalytic subunits, have been implicated with drug resistance of tumor cells. In elucidating the role of intermediate proteasomes in drug resistance, a crucial step is to unequivocally determine the subunit composition of intermediate proteasomes in cells. With this in mind, the goal of the studies reported in this dissertation is to develop novel chemical tools which can facilitate the investigation of intermediate proteasomes via two complementary approaches: a FRET-based approach and a bifunctional cross-linking approach. Chapter 2 describes the structure-based design, synthesis, and characterization of a peptide epoxyketone-based fluorescent probe, named as LKS01-B650, which selectively targets the immunoproteasome subunit β5i/LMP7. In addition to its utility in determining the identity of intermediate proteasomes as FRET-based probe, this imaging agent may also serve as a valuable tool in visualizing the immunoproteasome in living cells. Chapter 3 describes the design and synthesis of various epoxyketone-based bifunctional agents. The ability of these bifunctional agents to cross-link different catalytic subunits within a proteasome complex is shown by mobility shift assays.These bifunctional agents may provide important information in determining the subunit composition of proteasomes. Chapter 4 describes a systematic study of the relationship between the proteasome inhibitor structure and the inhibitory activity against critical subunits of the proteasome. Given the reported role of β5i/LMP7 in autoimmune diseases, this study may provide useful insights in developing therapeutic agents for autoimmune diseases as well as other diseases. Chapter 5 describes a separate study which is not related to proteasome biology. A concise approach to synthesize 1-azaspirocyclic ring systems is developed by utilizing a novel semi-pinacol/Beckmann rearrangement. Additionally, an environmentally benign, microwave-assisted, and solvent-free self-condensation of carbonyl compounds is reported.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) are defined by neurodegeneration and accumulations of misfolded proteins that spread through the brain in a well characterized manner. In AD these accumulations consist mainly of β-amyloid (Aβ) and tau, while in PD, α-synuclein (α-syn) make up the characteristic lewy pathology.     The general aim of this thesis was to investigate mechanisms associated with neurotoxic peptide activity by Aβ, tau and α-syn in relation to cellular degradation and transfer with a cell-to-cell transfer model system.    We found that intercellular transfer of oligomeric Aβ occurs independently of isoform. However, the amount of transfer correlates with each isoforms ability to resist degradation or cellular clearance. The Aβ1-42 isoform showed particular resistance to clearance, which resulted in higher levels of cell-to-cell transfer of the isoform and lysosomal stress caused by accumulation.    As Aβ accumulations can inhibit the proteasomal degradation we investigated how reduced proteasomal degradation affected neuron-like cells. We found increased levels of phosphorylated tau protein, disturbed microtubule stability and impaired neuritic transport after reduced proteasomal activity. These changes was partly linked to c-Jun and ERK 1/2 kinase activity.    We could also show that α-syn transferred from cell-to-cell in our model system, with a higher degree of transfer for the larger oligomer and fibrillar species. Similar to Aβ, α-syn mainly colocalized with lysosomes, before and after transfer.     Lastly, we have developed our cell-to-cell transfer system into a model suitable for high throughput screening (HTS). The type of cells have been upgraded from SH-SY5Y cells to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), with a differentiation profile more similar to mature neurons. The next step will be screening a small molecular library for substances with inhibitory effect on cell-to-cell transfer of Aβ peptides.     The importance of the degradative systems in maintaining protein homeostasis and prevent toxic accumulations in general is well known. Our findings shows the importance of these systems for neurodegenerative diseases and also highlight the link between degradation and cell-to-cell transfer. To restore or enhance the degradative systems would be an interesting avenue to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Another way would be to inhibit the transfer of misfolded protein aggregates. By using the HTS model we developed, a candidate substance with good inhibitory effect on transfer can hopefully be found.

Leishmania et Trypanosoma brucei sont des protozoaires parasites responsables de graves parasitoses de distribution mondiale. Aucun vaccin n'est disponible contre ces maladies dont le traitement reste basé sur un nombre limité de médicaments coûteux, souvent toxiques et peu efficaces, problème auquel s'ajoute celui des chimiorésistances. D'où l'urgente nécessité de trouver de nouvelles cibles pour le développement de nouveaux traitements qui soient à la fois efficaces, non ou moins toxiques et à un coût plus accessible. Les Trypanosomatidés, dont les génomes ont été entièrement séquencés, présentent de nombreuses originalités dans leur biologie cellulaire et moléculaire, par exemple un ADN mitochondrial unique et extrêmement complexe appelé kinétoplaste. Leur développement suit également un "double" cycle cellulaire répliquant, d'une part, classiquement le noyau et, d'autre part, l'ensemble "corps basal-ADN mitochondrial" dont la ségrégation correcte conditionne la cytodiérèse. Ils possèdent par ailleurs deux types de protéasomes, un classique (26S) et un de type procaryote, plus spécifique et absent chez l'homme, le complexe HslVU. Nous avons montré que HslVU est localisé exclusivement dans l'unique mitochondrie des parasites, et qu'il est, chez T. brucei, essentiel pour la survie de ces organismes. En effet, son inhibition par ARN interférence entraine un blocage de la cytodiérèse suivi par une mort cellulaire. Le premier objectif de cette thèse a été de tenter de mieux comprendre le rôle de HslVU dans le cycle cellulaire associé au kinétoplaste chez ces parasites possédant déjà un protéasome classique. Mettant un terme à plusieurs publications contradictoires, nous avons confirmé la localisation mitochondriale de ce complexe chez Leishmania et chez T. brucei. Nous montrons pour la première fois qu'il est tout aussi essentiel dans les formes sanguines, celles présentes chez l'hôte mammifère, que dans les formes procycliques. Nous montrons aussi un rôle différencié des différentes sous-unités du complexe dans le déroulement du cycle cellulaire associé au kinétoplaste. Le deuxième objectif de cette thèse a été d'identifier de nouvelles protéines mitochondriales régulatrices du cycle cellulaire associé au kinétoplaste. Pour ce faire, nous avons développé une approche de criblage par ARN interférence "semi-systématique" sur 104 protéines mitochondriales, principalement de fonction inconnue. Si l'inhibition de l'expression de la majorité de ces protéines (62) n'a aucun effet sur la croissance cellulaire, celle des 42 restantes induit une baisse moyenne ou sévère de cette croissance. De façon surprenante, cette inhibition modifie significativement et avec plus ou moins d'ampleur le déroulement du cycle cellulaire, suggérant qu'il est dépendant de multiples fonctions cellulaires. Finalement, ce travail valide le protéasome HslVU comme une cible thérapeutique pertinente tout particulièrement à l'adresse des formes sanguines de T. brucei. La différenciation fonctionnelle de HslU1 et HslU2 et l'activité indépendante de HslV donnent une image plus complexe sur le fonctionnement de ce protéasome. Les données d'ARN interférence pour leur part nous orientent vers une régulation du cycle cellulaire très intégrée à l'ensemble des activités cellulaires. / Leishmania and Trypanosoma brucei are protozoan parasites responsible for worldwide distributed severe diseases. No vaccine is available and the treatment relies upon a limited number of drugs, which are costly, often toxic and not highly efficient, and for which resistances are increasing. Hence the necessity to urgently discover novel drug targets with the aim of developing new drug treatments which would be more efficient, less toxic and if possible cheaper.Trypanosomatids, of which the genome has been entirely sequenced, exhibit numerous peculiarities in their cell and molecular biology, for example a single and complex mitochondrial DNA network termed kinetoplast. Also, their development follows a ‘double' cell cycle ensuring the replication of, on the one hand, the nucleus (classical mitosis) and on the other hand, the “basal body-kinetoplast” whole, of which the correct segregation conditions cytokinesis. They also possess tow types of proteasomes, one classical one (26S) and one of the prokaryotic type, more specific and absent in human, the HslVU complex. We have shown that HslVU is located exclusively in the single mitochondrion of these parasites and, in T. brucei, that it is essential to parasite's survival. Indeed, its RNAinterference-based knockdown leads to a cytokinesis block followed par cell death. The first aim of this work was to try to better understand the role of HslVU in the ‘kinetoplast-associated' cell cycle in these parasites that already possess a classical proteasome. Putting an end to several contradictory publications, we confirmed the mitochondrial location of this complex in Leishmania and T. brucei. For the first time, we also demonstrate that it is just as essential in bloodstream forms (those present in the mammalian host) than in procyclic forms. We finally show a differentiated role for the different subunits of the complex in the progress of the kinetoplast-associated cell cycle.The second aim of this work was to identify novel mitochondrial proteins which would participate in the regulation of the kinetoplast-associated cell cycle. To do this, we developed a ‘semi-systematic' screening approach using RNA interference for 104 mitochondrial proteins, most of them being of unknown function. If the inhibition of most of these proteins (64) had no effect on cell growth, that of the 42 remaining ones induced a moderate or severe growth defect. Surprisingly, this inhibition yielded significant and more or less visible modifications of the cell cycle progress, suggesting that the latter is dependent upon multiple cell functions.Finally, this study validates the HslVU proteasome as a pertinent drug target, particularly for the bloodstream forms of T. brucei. The functional differentiation of HslU1 and HslU2 and the independent activity of HslV are intriguing and give a complex picture of the functioning of this proteasome. On the other hand, the RNA interference data suggest a cell cycle regulation which would be highly integrated to the whole of the cell activities.

Protein folding is the process in which polypeptides in their non-native states attain the unique folds of their native states. Adverse environmental conditions and genetic predisposition challenge the folding process and accelerate the production of proteotoxic misfolded proteins. Misfolded proteins are selectively recognized and removed from the cell by processes of protein quality control (PQC). In PQC molecular chaperones of the Heat shock protein 70 kDa (Hsp70) family play important roles by recognizing and facilitating the removal of misfolded proteins. Hsp70 function is dependent on cofactors that regulate the intrinsic ATPase activity of the chaperone. In this thesis I have used yeast genetic, cell biological and biochemical experiments to gain insight into the regulation of Hsp70 function in PQC by nucleotide-exchange factors (NEFs). Study I shows that the NEF Fes1 is a key factor essential for cytosolic PQC. A reverse genetics approach demonstrated that Fes1 NEF activity is required for the degradation of misfolded proteins associated with Hsp70 by the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Specifically, Fes1 association with Hsp70-substrate complexes promotes interaction of the substrate with downstream ubiquitin E3 ligase Ubr1. The consequences of genetic removal of FES1 (fes1Δ) are the failure to degrade misfolded proteins, the accumulation of protein aggregates and constitutive induction of the heat-shock response. Taken the experimental data together, Fes1 targets misfolded proteins for degradation by releasing them from Hsp70. Study II describes an unusual example of alternative splicing of FES1 transcripts that leads to the expression of the two alternative splice isoforms Fes1S and Fes1L. Both isoforms are functional NEFs but localize to different compartments. Fes1S is localized to the cytosol and is required for the efficient degradation of Hsp70-associated misfolded proteins. In contrast, Fes1L is targeted to the nucleus and represents the first identified nuclear NEF in yeast. The identification of distinctly localized Fes1 isoforms have implications for the understanding of the mechanisms underlying nucleo-cytoplasmic PQC. Study III reports on the mechanism that Fes1 employs to regulate Hsp70 function. Specifically Fes1 carries an N-terminal domain (NTD) that is conserved throughout the fungal kingdom. The NTD is flexible, modular and is required for the cellular function of Fes1. Importantly, the NTD forms ATP-sensitive complexes with Hsp70 suggesting that it competes substrates of the chaperone during Fes1-Hsp70 interactions. Study IV reports on methodological development for the efficient assembly of bacterial protein-expression plasmids using yeast homologous recombination cloning and the novel vector pSUMO-YHRC. The findings support the notion that Fes1 plays a key role in determining the fate of Hsp70-associated misfolded substrates and thereby target them for proteasomal degradation. From a broader perspective, the findings provide information essential to develop models that describe how Hsp70 function is regulated by different NEFs to participate in protein folding and degradation. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript.</p>

O Controle de qualidade de proteína (CQP) consiste na supervisão e no processamento de proteínas danificadas por meio de processos catalíticos (proteassoma e autofagia). Nesse estudo, caracterizamos o CQP, bem como os benefícios da ativação &#946;2-adrenérgica (&#946;2-AR) modulador positivo do CQP, em modelo animal de disfunção/atrofia muscular induzida por constrição crônica do nervo isquiático (CCI). Observamos que, apesar de um aumento na atividade catalítica, a atrofia está associada à um CQP insuficiente, detectado por um acúmulo de proteínas citotóxicas nessa musculatura. O tratamento com Formoterol (agonista &#946;2-AR) aumentou a atividade proteassomal e restaurou o fluxo de degradação via autofagia, resultando na melhora do CQP e da miopatia esquelética. A inibição da autofagia, mas não do proteassoma, foi capaz de abolir os efeitos do Formoterol na CCI. Nossos resultados sugerem uma nova contribuição da sinalização &#946;2-AR no quadro de miopatia esquelética, no qual sua ativação foi capaz de restaurar o CQP, contribuindo para a melhora do trofismo e função muscular. / The protein quality control (PQC) detects, repairs and disposes cytotoxic proteins through different proteolytic systems (proteasome and autophagy). Here, we characterized the PQC profile as well as the benefits of sustained &#946;2-adrenoceptor activation (&#946;2-AR) a positive PQC modulator, during skeletal muscle atrophy in a rat model of sciatic nerve constriction (SNC). PQC is disrupted in SNC rats, demonstrated by elevated proteasomal and lysosomal activities along with accumulation of cytotoxic proteins and pro-apoptotic factors. The &#946;2-AR activation (Formoterol) promotes a further increase in proteasomal activity, along with autophagic flux reestablishment. Of interest, sustained autophagy inhibition, but not proteasomal inhibition, is sufficient to abolish Formoterol effects on skeletal muscle PQC, mass and strength. These findings suggest a new contribution of &#946;2-AR signalling pathway to the pathophysiology of skeletal muscle where &#946;2-AR restores the impaired PQC, therefore contributing to a better skeletal muscle morphology and function.

MHC-Klasse-I präsentierte Epitope werden überwiegend durch den proteasomalen Abbau von Poly-Ubiquitin markierten Proteinen und defekten ribosomalen Produkten (DRiPs) generiert. Die post-proteasomale Prozessierung durch zytosolische Exo- und Endopeptidasen führt jedoch hauptsächlich zur Epitop-Zerstörung und nur ein sehr geringer Anteil der Peptide entkommt der Degradation. Bisher ist noch unklar, wie die enzymatischen Aktivitäten des heterogenen Peptidase-Pools im Zytosol die finale Epitop-Prozessierung beeinflussen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden heteromere Interaktionen von zytosolischen Peptidasen analysiert und ihre Wirkung auf die Prozessierung und Präsentation von proteasomal generier-ten Vorläuferpeptiden in Bezug auf die HCMVpp65495-503 Epitop-Generierung untersucht. Glycerolgradientenzentrifugationen und Immunpräzipitationsexperimente zeigten, dass die zytosolischen Peptidasen Nardilysin (NRDc) und Aminopeptidase-B (AP-B) in den gleichen Fraktionen sedimentieren und zu heteromeren Komplexen interagieren. Die siRNA- abhängige Reduktion der Proteinexpression beider Peptidasen hatte einen positiven Effekt auf die HCMVpp65 spezifische CTL-Antwort. Demnach vermindert der Peptidase-Komplex die HCMVpp65-spezifische Epitop-Präsentation auf der Zelloberfläche. Im Gegensatz dazu bewirkte ein in vitro rekonstituierter trimerer Peptidase-Komplex jedoch die verstärkte HCMVpp65 Epitop-Generierung aus einem proteasomal generierten Vorläuferpeptid. Auf der anderen Seite führte gereinigte AP-B zu der anhaltenden Zerstörung des Epitops. Die Ergeb-nisse deuten somit darauf hin, dass sowohl einzelne als auch verschiedene Interaktionen von zytosolischen Peptidasen die Prozessierung und Präsentation des HCMVpp65-Epitops unterschiedlich modulieren und somit die HCMVpp65-spezifische antivirale Immunantwort beeinflussen. / MHC class I presented antigens are generated by the degradation of poly- ubiquitinated pro-teins and defective ribosomal products (DRiPs) by a major protease, the 26S proteasome. However, the post- proteasomal processing by cytosolic exo-and endopeptidases mainly leads to epitope destruction and only a very small proportion of the peptides escape degradation. So far, it is still unclear how the enzymatic activity of the heterogeneous pool of peptidases in the cytosol affects final epitope processing and therewith immune response. In the present work heteromeric interactions of cytosolic peptidases and their effect on pro-cessing and presentation of proteasomal generated peptides were analysed with regard to HCMVpp65495-503 epitope generation. Glycerol gradient centrifugation and immunoprecipitation experiments indicate that the cyto-solic peptidases Nardilysine (NRDc) and Aminopeptidase B (AP-B) sediment in the same fractions and interact to heteromeric complexes. The siRNA dependent reduction of protein expression of these two peptidases had a positive effect on the HCMVpp65 specific CTL re-sponse. Thus the peptidase complex reduces HCMVpp65 epitope presentation on the cell sur-face possibly due to epitope destruction. In contrast to the findings of the CTL assays, an in vitro reconstituted trimeric peptidase complex resulted in the increased generation of HCMVpp65 epitopes from a proteasomal generated peptide precursor. On the other hand pu-rified AP-B led to the ongoing destruction of the epitope. The findings obtained show that single cytosolic peptidases and various interactions of cytosolic peptidases regulate the pro-cessing and presentation of the HCMVpp65 epitope differently, thereby influencing the HCMV-specific antiviral immune response.

Das Ubiquitin Proteasom System generiert die Mehrheit der antigenen Peptide, die zusammen mit MHC Klasse I Molekülen präsentiert werden, wobei durch Kooperation mit alternativen proteolytischen Systemen die Vielfalt der möglichen MHC I Liganden erhöht wird. In diesem Zusammenhang, insbesondere im Rahmen einer Immunantwort, ist die Rolle von Aminopeptidasen bislang nur ungenügend charakterisiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der modulatorische Einfluss von zytosolischen und im ER lokalisierten Aminopeptidasen auf die Generierung des HCMV pp65495-503 Epitops durch Prozessierung von proteasomal generierten Peptidprodukten untersucht. Dafür wurde in pp65 exprimierenden Zellen die Expression einzelner Aminopeptidasen mittels siRNA inhibiert und der Effekt auf die Epitoppräsentation über die Aktivierung pp65495-503 spezifischer CTL bestimmt. Es zeigte sich, dass TPPII, LAP, AP-B und POP limitierend auf die Epitoppräsentation wirken. Damit wurden die Peptidasen AP-B und POP erstmalig in direkten Zusammenhang mit der MHC Klasse I Antigenprozessierung gebracht. Analysen weiterer zytosolischer Peptidasen wie TOP, BH und PSA zeigten keinen signifikanten Effekt auf die Epitoppräsentation, so dass diese Peptidasen an der zellulären Prozessierung des pp65 Antigens nicht beteiligt sind. Die Trimmaktivität von ERAPI und ERAPII im ER hingegen hatte einen bedeutenden Anteil an der pp65495-503 Epitopgenerierung. In Immunpräzipitationsexperimenten konnte zudem die Interaktion der ER Aminopeptidasen mit dem peptide-loading complex zum ersten Mal nachgewiesen werden. Die vorliegenden Daten geben Hinweise darauf, dass die Interaktion von ERAPI und ERAPII mit dem Komplex unabhängig von dessen vollständiger Assemblierung mit dem TAP Transporter stattfinden kann und vermutlich über Tapasin vermittelt wird. Da diese Assoziation durch IFNgamma induziert wird, könnte sie zu einer effizienteren Antigenprozessierung und -Präsentation, vor allem unter Infektionsbedingungen, beitragen. / The ubiquitin proteasome system is responsible for the generation of the majority of MHC class I presented antigenic peptides. By cooperation with alternative proteolytic systems the diversity of MHC class I ligands is increased. In this context, especially during immune response, the role of aminopeptidases is barely characterised. In this project the effect of cytosolic and ER-resident aminopeptidases on processing of proteasomal generated peptides was investigated with regard to HCMV pp65495-503 epitope generation. Therefore, expression level of single aminopeptidases was down regulated by siRNA in pp65 expressing cells and the effect of down regulation on epitope presentation was analysed by activation of pp65495-503 specific CTLs. It could be demonstrated that TPPII, LAP, AP-B and POP have negative effects on pp65 epitope presentation. With AP-B and POP two additional cytosolic aminopeptidases with a functional role in epitope processing were identified. Other aminopeptidases, that have been characterised as part of the antigen processing machinery, namely TOP, BH and PSA, did not affect pp65 epitope generation. In contrast, trimming by ERAPI and ERAPII in the ER resulted in an efficient epitope presentation. For the first time, experimental evidence was provided that the two ER-resident peptidases interact with the MHC class I peptide-loading complex (PLC). The obtained results indicate that this association takes place independently of the assembly of the entire complex including TAP and is probably mediated by tapasin. The observation that this complex formation is inducible by IFNgamma suggests that the association of ERAPI and ERAPII to the PLC accounts for a better antigen processing and presentation mainly at the site of infection.

Das 20S Proteasom bildet den Protein degradierenden Teil des Ubiquitin-Proteasom-Systems (UPS) und ist damit an wichtigen zellulären Prozessen wie Genexpressionskontrolle, Zellzykluskontrolle, Apoptose, Peptidgenerierung zur MHC Klasse I Präsentation und Degradation fehlgefalteter Proteine beteiligt. Die einzelnen Schritte der Biogenese des 20S Proteasoms in Eukaryoten sind bisher nur in Ansätzen verstanden. In dieser Arbeit wird die Untereinheitenzusammensetzung von Biogeneseintermediaten und ihre subzelluläre Lokalisation und Organisation in humanen Zelllinien untersucht. Durch die Etablierung eines in vitro Systems konnten distinkte Assemblierungsintermediate humaner Proteasomen generiert werden und ein (-Ring als früheres Intermediat im in vitro System nachgewiesen werden. Aufschluss über den weiteren Vorgang der Assemblierung wurden durch in vivo Experimente mit radioaktiv markierten HeLa Zellextrakten gewonnen. So konnten vor allem neu synthetisierte und zuletzt eingebaute Untereinheiten identifiziert werden. Hierzu gehören die Untereinheiten ?1 und (7, die aufgrund ihrer in trans agierenden C-terminalen Verlängerungen einen Dimerisierungsprozess zweier Halbproteasom-Vorläuferkomplexe forcieren. Darüber hinaus kann die Untereinheit (1 aufgrund der gewonnen Erkenntnisse als die wahrscheinlich den (-Ring schließende Untereinheit im Vorläuferkomplex postuliert werden. Proteasomale Assemblierungsintermediate konnten außerdem durch immuncytochemische und biochemische Methoden am ER von humanen Zelllinien lokalisiert werden. Dabei scheint dem Assemblierungsfaktor POMP eine Schlüsselrolle zuzukommen, da dieser eine Assoziation der Vorläuferkomplexe mit dem ER erst ermöglicht. In dieser Arbeit sind weitere Schritte des komplexen Biogenese-Vorgangs konstitutiver 20S Proteasomen in humanen Zelllinien aufgeklärt worden und es konnte erstmals die subzelluläre Lokalisation für Assemblierungsintermediate in humanen Zellen beschrieben werden. / The 20S Proteasom represents the protein degrading part of the Ubiquitin- Proteasom- System and is therefore a participant in important cellular processes like gene expression, cell cycle control, apoptosis, peptide generation for MHC class I presentation and degradation of misfolded proteins. Only the beginnings of the individual steps of the 20S proteasome biogenesis in eucaryotes are so far understood. Tis work examines the subunit composition of assembly intermediates and their subcellular localisation and organisation in eucaryotic cells. Distinct assembly intermediates of human proteasomes have been generated by establishing an in vitro system. As an earlier intermediate in the in vitro system an (-ring could be identified. In vivo experiments using radioactive marked total lysates of HeLa cells shed light on the following sequence of assembly. Thus new synthesised and finally incorporated subunits could be indentified. Two of this subunits are (1 and (7 which could force the dimerisation process of two half-proteasome-precursor by their trans acting c-terminal extensions. Furthermore the (1 subunit has been identified as the (-ring completing subunit in the precursor complex. In addition it was possible to detect proteasomal assembly intermediates through immuncytochemical and biochemical methods on the ER of human cell lines. Thereby the assembly factor POMP plays a key role as it allows in the first place the precursor association with the ER. This work clarifies further steps of complex procedure of biogenesis of constitutive 20S proteasomes in human cell lines and allows the characterisation of the subcellular localisation of assembly intermediates in human cells for the first time.

Proteasomen sind Protease-Komplexe, die im Nucleo- und Cytoplasma eukaryontischer Zellen vorkommen. 26S-Proteasomen bestehen aus einem proteolytisch aktiven 20S-Kernkomplex und zwei regulatorischen 19S-Komplexen. Die Regulatorkomplexe erkennen Proteinsubstrate und kontrollieren den Zugang der Substrate in den katalytisch aktiven 20S-Komplex. Die Assemblierung des 20S-Komplexes erfolgt über Halbproteasomen, in denen Ringe aus a-Untereinheiten mit pro-b-Untereinheiten assoziiert sind . Modellvorstellungen zufolge erfolgt die Dimerisierung zweier Halbproteasomen in ein kurzlebiges Intermediat, das naszierende 20S-Proteasom, bevor die aktiven b-Untereinheiten autokatalytisch prozessiert werden. Der konservierte Maturierungsfaktor Ump1 ist mit proteasomalen Vorläuferkomplexen assoziiert und wird nach der Dimerisierung der Halbproteasomen und der Prozessierung der katalytischen Untereinheiten im Inneren des naszierenden 20S-Proteasoms degradiert. Auch Ump1-assoziierte proteasomale Vorläuferkomplexe sind vorwiegend nukleär. Grundlage dieser Arbeit war die Identifizierung des Proteins Blm3 als Proteasomen-assoziiertes Protein in Kernextrakten aus S. cerevisiae. Fluoreszenzmikroskopisch konnte die nukleäre Lokalisation von Blm3 in vivo gezeigt werden. Durch Glycerin-Dichtegradientenzentrifugation und die Charakterisierung von durch native Gel­elektrophorese aufgetrennten Komplexen konnte gezeigt werden, dass Blm3 an Ump1-assoziierte proteasomale Vorläuferkomplexe gebunden vorliegt. Durch native Gelelektrophorese und GFP-Markierungstechniken wurden Ump1-assoziierte Vorläuferkomplexe in Halbproteasomen und naszierende Proteasomen fraktioniert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Blm3 nicht mit Halbproteasomen, sondern mit naszierenden 20S-Proteasomen interagiert. Im Dblm3-Deletionsstamm wurde durch Pulse Chase-Analysen eine beschleunigte Kinetik der Prozessierung des naszierenden Proteasoms und eine beschleunigte Degradation des Maturierungsfaktors Ump1 beobachtet. Das Protein Blm3 verzögert die Reifung des naszierenden Proteasoms in das maturierte 20S-Proteasom. Blm3 übt vermutlich einen koordinierenden oder regulatorischen Effekt auf die Maturierung und letztlich auf die Aktivierung des 20S-Proteasoms aus. / Proteasomes are multisubunit protease complexes that occur in the nucleo- and cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells. They participate in a variety of biological processes. 26S proteasomes consist of a proteolytically active 20S core complex and two regulatory 19S complexes. The regulatory complexes recognize substrate proteins and control the substrate access into the catalytically active 20S complex. The hollow cylindrical 20S complex consists of four heptameric staggered rings. The two inner rings contain seven different b-subunits each, three of which are catalytically active. The two outer rings possess seven different catalytically inactive a-subunits each. The assembly of the 20S complex occurs via half proteasomes in which rings of a-subunits are associated with pre-b-subunits. According to models, the dimerization of two half proteasomes into a short-lived intermediate, the nascent 20S proteasome, takes place before the active b-subunits are processed autocatalytically. The conserved maturation factor Ump1 is associated to half proteasomes and is, after their dimerization and the processing of the catalytical subunits, degraded inside the nascent 20S proteasome. In yeast, proteasomes are essentially localized at the nuclear periphery. Ump1-associated half proteasomes are also predominantly nuclear. The protein Blm3 was found associated with the Ump1-associated half proteasome in nuclear extracts of S. cerevisiae. By fluorescence microscopy, the nuclear localization of Blm3 could be shown in vivo. Ump1-associated precursor complexes were fractionated into half proteasomes and nascent proteasomes by native gel electrophoresis and GFP labelling techniques. It could be shown that Blm3 interacts with nascent proteasomes but not with half proteasomes. In a Dblm3 deletion strain, an accelerated kinetics of processing of proteasomal precursor complexes as well as an accelerated degradation of the maturation factor Ump1 could be observed by pulse chase analysis. Accordingly, the protein Blm3 delays the maturation of the nascent proteasome into the mature 20S proteasome. As a coordinating protein, Blm3 presumably exerts a regulating effect onto the maturation and, finally, onto the activation of the 20S proteasome.

In eukaryotes protein degradation is performed by the ubiquitin-proteasome system. The 26S proteasome, a 2.5MDa large multimeric molecular machine, consists of more than 30 subunits and represents the core component of this proteolytic pathway. The complex is assembled from a proteolytically active 20S proteasome and two 19S regulator cap complexes. So far crystal structure, topology and enzymatic mechanism have only been elucidated for the 20S proteasome core particle (CP). CPs are assembled from four stacked rings of seven subunits each, following an alpha7beta7beta7alpha7-stochiometry. The strict established order of the proteasomal assembly and maturation is essential to prevent uncontrolled and premature protein degradation in the cell. CPs belong to the class of Ntn-hydrolases. Peptide hydrolysis is performed inside a central cavity at the active sites of the beta-type subunits, with Ogam of the hydroxyl group of the N-terminal threonine acting as the nucleophile. Release of the proteolytically active threonine through N-O-Acetyl rearrangement is the last step of the proteasomal assembly. Compartmentalisation of CPs is an important way to regulate substrate access to the central cavity as well as release of the generated oligopeptides. The activity of eukaryotic CPs are controlled by an unique mechanism: docking of regulatory complexes, like Blm3, PA28 or 19S, causes a conformational change of the N-terminal residues of the latent alpha-subunits, resulting in an activation of the proteolytically active sites. Archaebacterial CPs lack such regulatory gating mechanism. The controlled degradation of proteins by the proteasome dominates a variety of biological essential processes, like metabolic adaptation, apoptosis, inflammation, immune and stress response, as well as cell proliferation and cell differentiation. Selective and specific natural and synthetic inhibitors of CPs might find their practical application in treatment of cancer or inflammatory diseases.