Perú, Colombia, Ecuador y Bolivia comparten desafíos similares frente al Cambio Climático y cuentan con un organismo regional que trabaja temas medio ambientales: la Comunidad Andina. Sin embargo, no articulan estrategias conjuntas en los espacios de negociación internacional. Esta Investigación busca responder a la pregunta:¿Por qué no participa la Comunidad Andina en la Conferencia de las Partes dentro de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático entre los años 2007 y 2012? La tesis se divide en tres niveles y utiliza una metodología basada en las herramientas teóricas del neo funcionalismo y el constructivismo. Primero evalúa el grado de participación de la CAN en la Conferencia de las Partes (COP). En segundo lugar, se compara la integración entre los países miembros de la CAN en la agenda medioambiental con la agenda económica y política. Para ello utilizamos herramientas teóricas provenientes del neo funcionalismo, evaluando el aspecto infraestructural. En tercer lugar, utilizamos elementos del constructivismo para analizar los discursos y narrativas que influyen en la toma de decisiones políticas y de cooperación, haciendo una recolección de las declaraciones más importantes en la materia y generando un perfil de las identidades de los diferentes países miembros. Los resultados principales de la investigación son que a pesar que la CAN tiene cómo uno de sus ejes temáticos la conservación medio ambiental, ese mecanismo no es parte de las negociaciones de la COP, en contraste con otros organismos de cooperación regionales y grupos de trabajo. Esto se debe a que los niveles de integración son muy bajos a nivel estructural, ello favorece los temas políticos y económicos, relegando la mitigación contra el Cambio Climático. Además, las identidades de los países, se han prefigurado a traves de elementos discursivos opuestos dividiendo a los países miembros en dos ejes: Perú y Colombia por un lado y Ecuador y Bolivia en otro extremo. Es por ello que hay divergencias dentro de la región andina y no se logra generar una estrategia de cooperación y un marco común dentro de las negociaciones frente a la emergencia global y al interior de la COP.

Subduction zones, such as the Andean convergent margin, are the sites at which new continental crust is generated, and where subducting material is either recycled to the crust via arc magmatism or transferred to the deep mantle. The composition of arc magmas and associated new continental crust reflects variable contributions from mantle, crustal and subducted reservoirs. Insights into crustal growth and recycling processes in the southern Central Andes, specifically in the Pampean flat-slab segment, have been gained by utilising a range of petrological, geochronological and geochemical techniques. These techniques have been applied to a suite of Late Cretaceous (~73 Ma) to Late Miocene (~6 Ma) intrusive (granitoids) and extrusive (basalts to rhyolites) arc rocks collected from an east - west transect across the Andean Cordillera. The oxygen and hafnium isotopic composition of the accessory mineral zircon allows mantle-derived melts contaminated with older, upper continental crustal to be identified. Boron isotopic compositions of melt inclusions, combined with concentrations of certain incompatible trace elements, can be used to assess the source and influence of fluids derived from subducting material on the melt source region. The southern Central Andes provides a particularly interesting area to study these processes as the thickness of the continental crust has increased significantly over the course of the Cenozoic (from ~35 km to >50 km) and the angle of the subducting Nazca plate has shallowed since ~18 Ma, causing the position of the volcanic arc to migrate to the east. In order to unravel the complexities involved with constraining the contributions to arc magmas at an active continental margin, a range of geochronological, geochemical, and geothermobarometric techniques, including high resolution, micro-analysis of mineral phases and melt inclusions, have been applied. High resolution, U-Pb dating of magmatic zircon has improved regional stratigraphy in the Pampean flat-slab segment (between ~29 and 32 °S) and provided an accurate temporal constraint for geochemical and geothermobarometric data. The results of in-situ O and Lu-Hf isotope analysis of zircon show both distinct temporal and spatial variations across the Andean arc. The observed isotopic variability is attributed to variable contamination of mantle-derived melts with distinct Andean basement terranes, which vary east – west in composition and age. ‘Mantle-like’ δ18O(zircon) values, juvenile initial ƐHf(zircon) values and a lack of inherited, xenocrystic zircon cores, suggests the Late Cretaceous (~73 Ma) to Eocene (~39 Ma) plutons located in the Principal Cordillera of Chile, experienced very little interaction with the upper continental crust. Amphibole – plagioclase geothermobarometry indicates these calc-alkaline granitoids, which form extensive north – south trending belts, were emplaced at shallow depths in the crust (~4 – 5 km). Therefore the Late Cretaceous to Late Eocene is interpreted as a period of significant upper crustal growth. The isotopic variability in the Late Oligocene (~26 Ma) to Late Miocene (~6 Ma) arc magmatic rocks demonstrates that during thickening of the continental crust and migration of the Andean arc to the east, arc magmas assimilated Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic basement. In addition, arc magmas erupted/emplaced in the Argentinean Precordillera (i.e. farthest east from the trench) assimilated a Grenville-aged (~ 1330 – 1030 Ma) basement. The youngest arc magmas (~6 Ma) erupted in the Frontal Cordillera also show evidence for the assimilation of this ancient basement terrane, potentially signalling under-thrusting beneath the Frontal Cordillera. Overall, the later part of the Cenozoic represents a period of crustal reworking. Boron concentrations and isotope ratios measured in pyroxene hosted melt inclusions and for the first time in zircon hosted melt inclusions, are higher than the values expected for the mantle wedge and show significant variations with time. The source of the Paleocene (~61 Ma) arc magmas were influenced by fluids primarily derived from altered oceanic crust. Lower δ11B values and boron concentrations obtained for Oligocene (25 – 23 Ma) arc magmatic rocks reflects a diminished influence of slab-derived fluids reflecting a greater depth to the top of the slab. Fluids derived from serpentinite influenced the source of the arc magmas after ~19.5 Ma. This has been linked with the intersection of the Juan Fernández Ridge, a volcanic seamount chain associated with hydrated and serpentinised oceanic lithosphere.

<p>The contribution of surface evapotranspiration (ET) to moist convection, cloudiness and precipitation along the eastern flanks of the Andes (EADS) was investigated using the Weather Research and Forecasting (ARW-WRF3.4.1) model with nested simulations of selected weather conditions down to 1.2 km grid spacing. To isolate the role of surface ET, numerical experiments were conducted using a quasi-idealized approach whereby at every time step the surface sensible heat effects are exactly the same as in the reference simulations, whereas the surface latent heat fluxes are prevented from entering the atmosphere. </p><p>Energy balance analysis indicates that local surface ET along the EADS influences moist convection primarily through its impact on conditional instability, because it acts as an important source of moist entropy in this region. The energy available for convection decreases by up to ~60% when the ET contribution is withdrawn. In contrast, when convective motion is not thermally driven, or under conditionally stable conditions, latent heating from the land surface becomes secondary. At the scale of the Andes proper, removal of surface ET weakens upslope flows by increasing static stability of the lower troposphere, as the vertical gradient of water vapor mixing ratio tends to be less negative. Consequently, moisture convergence is reduced over the EADS. In the absence of local surface ET, this process operates in concert with damped convective energy, suppressing cloudiness, and decreasing daily precipitation by up to ~50% in the simulations presented here.</p><p>When the surface ET is eliminated over the Amazon lowlands (AMZL), the results show that, without surface ET, daily precipitation within the AMZL drops by up to ~75%, but nearly doubles over the surrounded mountainous regions. This dramatic influence is attributed to a dipole structure of convergence-divergence anomalies over the AMZL, primarily due to the considerable cooling of the troposphere associated with suppressed convection. Further examination of moist static energy evolution indicates that the net decrease in CAPE (Convective Available Potential Energy) over the AMZL is due to the removal of surface ET that is only partially compensated by related regional circulation changes. Because of the concave shape of the Andean mountain range, the enhanced low-level divergence promotes air mass accumulation to the east of the central EADS. This perturbation becomes sufficiently strong around nightfall and produces significant eastward low-level pressure gradient force, rendering wind currents more away from the Andes. Moisture convergence and convection over the EADS vary accordingly, strengthened in the day but attenuated at night. Nocturnal convective motion, however, is more widespread. Analytical solutions of simplified diagnostic equations of convective fraction suggest that reduction of lower troposphere evaporation is the driving mechanism. Additional exploratory experiments mimicking various levels of thinning and densification of AMZL forests via changes in surface ET magnitude demonstrate that the connection between the AMZL ET and EADS precipitation is robust.</p> / Dissertation

The Andes Mountains provide an ideal natural laboratory to analyze the relationship between the tectonic evolution of a subduction margin, retroarc shortening, basin morphology, and volcanic activity. Timing of initial shortening and foreland basin development in Argentina is diachronous along strike, with ages varying by 20-30 million years. The Neuquén Basin (32°S-40°S) of southern-central Argentina sits in a retroarc position and provides a geological record of sedimentation in variable tectonic settings from the Late Triassic to the early Cenozoic including: 1.) active extension and deposition in isolated rift basins in the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic; 2.) post-rift back-arc basin from Late Jurassic-Late Cretaceous; 3.) foreland basin from Late Cretaceous to Oligocene; and 4.) variable extension and contraction along-strike from Oligocene to present. The goal of this study is to determine the timing of the transition from post-rift thermal subsidence to foreland basin deposition in the northern Neuquén Basin and then assess volcanic activity and composition during various tectonic regimes. The Aconcagua and Malargüe areas (32°S and 35°S) are located in the northern segment of the Neuquén Basin and preserve Upper Jurassic to Miocene sedimentary rocks, which record the earliest phase of shortening at this latitude. This study presents new sedimentological and detrital zircon U-Pb data from the Jurassic to latest Cretaceous sedimentary strata to determine depositional environments, stratigraphic relations, provenance, and maximum depositional ages of these units and ultimately evaluate the role of tectonics on sedimentation in this segment of the Andes. The combination of provenance, basin, and subsidence analysis shows that the initiation of foreland basin deposition occurred at ~100 Ma with the deposition of the Huitrín Formation, which recorded an episode of erosion marking the passage of the flexural forebulge. This was followed by an increase in tectonic subsidence, along with the appearance of recycled sedimentary detritus, recorded in petrographic and detrital zircons analyses, as well development of an axial drainage pattern, consistent with deposition in the flexural forebulge between 95 and 80 Ma. By ca. 70 Ma the volcanic arc migrated eastward and was a primary local source for detritus. Growth structures recorded in latest Cretaceous units very near both the Aconcagua and Malargüe study areas imply 35-40 km and 80-125 km of foreland migration between 95 and 60 Ma in the Aconcagua and Malargüe areas, respectively. Strata ranging in age from Middle Jurassic to Neogene were analyzed to determine their detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra and Hf isotopic composition to determine the relationship between magmatic output rate, tectonic regime, and crustal evolution. When all detrital zircon data are combined, significant pulses in magmatic activity occur from 190-145 Ma, and at 128 Ma, 110 Ma, 69 Ma, 16 Ma, and 7 Ma. The duration of magmatic lulls increased markedly from 10-30 million years during back-arc deposition (190-100 Ma) to ~40-50 million years during foreland basin deposition (100-~30 Ma). The long duration of magmatic lulls during foreland basin deposition could be caused by flat-slab subduction events during the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic or by long magmatic recharge events. There are three major shifts towards positive Hf isotopic values and all are associated with regional extension events whereas compression seems to lead to more evolved isotopic values.

Les mécanismes qui mènent à la morphologie actuelle des Andes de Neuquén, dans le sud des Andes centrales (Argentine), sont mal compris. Dans ce travail, nous avons étudié les marqueurs morphotectoniques de la déformation au front de l'orogène qui montrent que le régime tectonique régional est compressif au Plio-Quaternaire. La partie méridionale des Andes de Neuquén constitue un prisme orogénique critique alors que la partie septentrionale implique plutôt la réactivation de blocs crustaux isolés dans l'avant-pays. Par ailleurs, le soulèvement dans l'avant-pays d'une large province crustale loin du front orogénique habituellement considéré à ces latitudes, traduit l'élargissement de l'orogène. Certaines structures extensives contemporaines de la compression s'expliquent par des glissements gravitaires similaires à ceux observés sur les marges passives. Les soulèvements crustaux et les couches sédimentaires ductiles contrôlent au premier ordre le processus. Des modèles numériques et une solution analytique montrent que l'incision fluviatile et la sédimentation favorisent ou inhibent l'initiation du processus.

<p>Denna rapport är en del av en förstudie som syftar att undersöka möjligheterna för ett bevattningsprojekt i de ecuadorianska Anderna. Rapport koncentrerar sig på vatten-tillgången för förstudien Estudio de Prefacitbilidad de un Proyecto de Riego en los Andes – el Caso de Balda Lupaxi Bajo, Chimborazo, Ecuador. Fältundersökningarna gjordes under mars till och med maj 2003 i Balda Lupaxi Bajo, en indian-by i provinsen Chimobrazo. I detta område är nederbörden bristfällig och följaktligen är skörden dålig och det är inte möjligt att bruka jorden under delar av året. Idén till projektet initierades av en bonde-förening som kallas UNASAC. UNASAC kommer att använda rapporten i sitt sökande efter finansiellt stöd för fördjupande studier och slutligen ett genomförande av projektet.</p><p>Målet med denna delrapport är att identifiera en lämplig plats för vattenuttag och att bestämma hur många hektar som kan bevattnas. Vidare presenteras ett förslag till utformning av vattenavledningen. Studien har gjorts genom fältstudier, vattenanalyser, intervjuer och bearbetning av hydrologiska och meteorologiska data.</p><p>Fyra vattenuttagsalternativ undersöktes, både flod- och grundvatten. Det mest lämpliga alternativet enligt denna studie är floden Llinllin. De andra undersökta alternativen förkastades på grund av brist på vatten, otillräcklig vattenkvalitet och höga kostnader. Llinllin-alternativet består av en direkt avledning, en öppen kanal och en sifon. Alternativet kan försörja 250 hektar av bevattnad odlingsmark under de antaganden som är gjorda i rapporten.</p><p>För att fortsätta med detta projekt måste bönderna lösa de sociala problem som finns i och mellan byarna. Kommunicationen med de närliggande byarna är nödvändig. Det finns många intressenter av Llinllin floden och det är nödvändigt att finna en hållbar lösning för vattenuttaget.</p> / <p>This report is a part of a prefeasiblity study to investigate the possibilities to introduce an irrigation system in a rural part of the Andes in Ecuador. The report concentrates on the water supply for the prefeasability study called Estudio de Prefacitbilidad de un Proyecto de Riego en los Andes – el Caso de Balda Lupaxi Bajo, Chimborazo, Ecuador. The field study was carried out in March to May 2003 in the indigenous village of Balda Lupaxi Bajo situated in the province of Chimborazo. In this area the precipitation is inferior throughout the year. Consequently the harvest is poor and it is not possible to cultivate during parts of the year. The project was initiated by UNASAC, an indigenous organization for farmers. UNASAC would use this report for finding finances to complete further studies and finally implement an irrigation system.</p><p>The main aims of this report are to identify a suitable site for water supply and to determine the size of the area possible to irrigate. Further, a distribution design of the water supply has been investigated. This was carried out by field studies, water analyses, interviews and processing of hydrological and meteorological data.</p><p>Four alternatives of water supply were studied, both river and ground water. The most appropriate water supply according to the study is the Llinllin River. The other investigated alternatives were rejected due to lack of water, insufficient water quality and high costs. The Llinllin River alternative consists of a direct abstraction, open channels and a siphon. This alternative can support 250 hectares under the constraints taken in this study.</p><p>In order to continue this project the farmers need to solve the social problems within and between the villages. An improvement of the communication with the nearby villages is necessary. There are many stakeholders involved in the usage of the Llinllin River and therefore it is of great importance to find a sustainable solution for the water abstraction.</p>

Les structures tectoniques responsables du soulèvement de la Cordillère des Andes à la latitude de Santiago du Chili sont bien connues sur le versant argentin de la chaîne, où s'est développé au cours du Néogène un système chevauchant à vergence Est. Sur le flanc Pacifique de la Cordillère, par contre, les structures tectoniques sont mal connues, et il n'y a pas de consensus pour expliquer le soulèvement de la Cordillère Principale et la formation de la Dépression Centrale dans laquelle s'est installée la ville de Santiago et la majeure partie de la population du Chili. Nous montrons que le raccourcissement dans les Andes du Chili Central a débuté par une inversion tectonique à l'ouest de la chaîne qui a accommodé 16 km de raccourcissement entre 22 et 16 Ma. Ce raccourcissement fait suite à l'extension oligocène, responsable de la formation du bassin extensif de Abanico, lequel a été comblé par de plus de 6 km de roches volcano-sédimentaires. Cette quantité de raccourcissement reste modeste par rapport à celle accommodée sur le flanc oriental de la chaîne, principalement coté argentin, où la tectonique compressive est responsable de ~70 km de raccourcissement survenus entre 16 et 4 Ma.<br />Tectonique compressive et soulèvement des Andes chiliennes n'ont pas été synchrones. Le soulèvement a eu lieu principalement entre 8 et 4 Ma, c'est-à-dire plusieurs millions d'années après l'épisode compressif majeur survenu sur le versant chilien des Andes centrales. En effet, le soulèvement des Andes du Chili central résulte essentiellement du fonctionnement d'un chevauchement majeur à vergence Est, qui émerge en surface en Argentine, et qui est issu du plan de Bénioff à 60 km de profondeur. Cette structure est articulée en plats et rampes, et sa géométrie est contrôlée par la stratification rhéologique de la lithosphère continentale. Cette structure joue un rôle fondamental pendant le développement andin car elle contrôle le transfert des déformations et des contraintes depuis la zone de subduction vers le continent. On observe que l'épisode majeur de soulèvement de la chaîne est corrélé avec la mise en place des porphyres cuprifères géants (gisement de El Teniente) du Chili central.<br />La réponse érosive au soulèvement de la chaîne a été très lente. Nous montrons à l'aide d'âges d'exhumation obtenus par traces de fission sur apatites, et à l'aide de la datation de niveaux volcaniques déposés dans les vallées au cours de leur formation, que l'incision des vallées dans la Cordillère Principale a eu lieu plusieurs millions d'années après le soulèvement de la chaîne. Les contrastes lithologiques, en contrôlant la vitesse d'érosion, ont favorisé le développement d'une vallée parallèle à la côte, entraînant la capture des cours d'eau descendant de la haute chaîne par quelques fleuves majeurs. Ce phénomène a été modélisé à l'aide du code de calcul APERO. Nous pensons donc que la Dépression Centrale n'est pas d'origine tectonique sensu-stricto, mais qu'elle résulte aussi de la mise en place du réseau de drainage et de son contrôle par la lithologie. Son creusement provient de la réponse érosive au grand soulèvement du Miocène supérieur.<br />L'épisode majeur de soulèvement qui a lieu vers 10 Ma ne concerne pas seulement le Chili central. Il s'observe également dans les Andes centrales (Altiplano) et dans l'avant-arc du Pérou central. Pourtant, la vitesse de convergence entre les plaques Nazca et le continent diminue à cette époque. Par contre, la vitesse absolue vers l'ouest de la plaque Amérique du sud augmente, ce qui suggère que la vitesse absolue du continent, plus que la vitesse de convergence, exerce un contrôle majeur sur l'orogenèse andine.<br />Enfin, le Chili Central constitue une région de transition entre deux zones climatiques et géomorphologiques : la région nord, plus sèche, est dominée par les processus constructifs tandis que les processus érosifs sont prépondérants dans la région sud. Ce contraste contribue à la disparition de la Dépression Centrale au nord de 33°S, même si l'influence de la géométrie de la subduction, qui passe à une subduction horizontale au nord de 33°S est aussi à prendre en compte.

Sedimentary deposits have been broadly used to constrain past climate change and tectonic histories within mountain belts. This dissertation summarizes three studies that evaluate the effects of climate change and tectonics on sedimentary basin development. (1) The paleoslope estimation method, a method for calculating the threshold slope of a fluvial deposit, does not account for the stochastic variations in water depth in alluvial channels caused by climatic and autogenic processes. Therefore, we test the robustness of applying the paleoslope estimation method in a tectonic context. Based on our numerical modeling results, we conclude that if given sufficient time gravel can prograde long distances at regional slopes less than the minimum transport slope calculated with the paleoslope estimation method if water depth varies stochastically in time, and thus, caution should be exercised when evaluating regional slopes measured from the rock record in a tectonic context. (2) The role of crustal thickening, lithospheric removal, and climate change in driving surface uplift in the central Andes in southern Bolivia and changes in the creation of accommodation space and depositional facies in the adjacent foreland basin has been a topic of debate over the last decade. Our numerical modeling results show that gradual rise of the Eastern Cordillera above 2-3 km prior to 22 Ma leads to sufficient sediment accommodation for the Oligocene-Miocene foreland basin stratigraphy, and thus, the Eastern Cordillera gained the majority of its modern elevation prior to 10 Ma. Also, we conclude that major changes in grain size and depositional rates are primarily controlled by mountain-belt migration (i.e., climate change and lithospheric removal are secondary mechanisms). (3) Existing equations for predicting the long-term bedload sediment flux in alluvial channels include mean discharge as a controlling variable but do not explicitly include variations in discharge through time. We develop an analytic equation for the long-term bedload sediment flux that incorporates both the mean and coefficient of variation of discharge. Our results show that although increasing aridity leads to an increase in large discharges with respect to small discharges, long-term bedload sediment transport rates decrease for both gravel and sand-bed rivers with increasing aridity.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Magíster en Ciencias, Mención Geofísica / El valle de Lonquimay (38.46°S) se localiza en el extremo septentrional de la Zona de Falla Liquiñe-Ofqui, que se extiende por 1200 km como un sistema transcurrente dextral y que es el elemento estructural dominante del intra-arco de la Zona Volcánica Sur de los Andes. A lo largo de esta zona de falla se emplazan los principales centros volcánicos de la región, algunos de los cuales tienen asociados sistemas geotermales, como Tolhuaca y Sierra Nevada, a unos 20 km al NO y al SO de Lonquimay, respectivamente. Para caracterizar el relleno sedimentario de dicho valle y de finir la estructura geoeléctrica de la región circundante se realizaron estudios geofísicos de gravimetría y magnetotelúrica (MT), los que permiten determinar variaciones en la estructura de densidad y de resistividad del medio en profundidad, respectivamente. El trabajo de adquisición de datos se llevó a cabo en tres campañas de terreno, en las cuales se registraron 196 puntos de gravimetría y se instalaron 9 estaciones de MT en el área de estudio, más una estación remota situada a unos 10 km al ONO del pueblo de Lonquimay. Los datos gravimétricos fueron procesados para obtener la Anomalía de Bouguer Completa, con la cual se de finió un modelo de profundidad de la cuenca sedimentaria del valle; mientras que con los registros de magnetotelúrica se calculó el tensor de impedancia Z, y se obtuvieron curvas de resistividad aparente y fase para cada estación, con las cuales se realizaron modelos unidimensionales de resistividad en función de la profundidad. Posteriormente, se efectuó un análisis de resistividad y dimensionalidad en base a elipses del tensor de fase y fl echas de inducción. El modelo gravimétrico indica que la cuenca presenta dos depocentros, de 360 y 260 metros de profundidad. Posiblemente se trate de un solo gran depocentro separado por alguna estructura que alza la parte central del valle. La morfología de la cuenca indica que el relleno sedimentario aumenta en dirección SE, apoyando la hipótesis de un modelo de hemi-graben. Las unidades localizadas al norte de la cuenca corresponden a rocas de baja densidad del miembro Guapitrío de la Fm. Cura-Mallín, posiblemente de alta porosidad y permeabilidad que, sumado a la fracturación e hidratación a las que están expuestas, facilitarían la circulación de fl uidos en profundidad. Los modelos 1D y las elipses del tensor de fase dan cuenta de dos secciones de baja resistividad situadas en la unidad geológica anteriormente mencionada: una bajo las estaciones S2 y S14 de MT, a unos 150 y 400 metros de profundidad, respectivamente, y de 250 metros de espesor, cuya resistividad alcanza los 6 [Ohm-m]; y otra bajo la estación S13, situada a una profundidad mayor. Las características eléctricas que defi nen a estas regiones como zonas conductoras pudiesen estar asociadas a la presencia de fluidos relacionados con algún sistema geotermal de baja temperatura independiente, o bien, con una zona de outflow de alguno de los sistemas geotermales presentes al oeste del valle de Lonquimay.