Seawater and wastewater all around the world contain toxins and pollutants, not the least drug residues, including hormoneswhich disturb the ecosystems and antibiotics with growing multi-drug resistance of bacteria as a result. The effects onecosystems and mankind can be severe and with this general fact the need for proper analysis devices increases. This haspromoted further studies to establish devices for detection of analytes with high selectivity and high sensitivity. In this thesis Ipresent a unique device exploiting capture of antigen on antibody conjugated actin filaments and subsequent transportationof the antigen in Baltic Sea water using heavy meromyosin (HMM) motor fragments from muscle myosin. The model-antibody,anti-rIgG, used in the study, was covalently attached to the actin filaments, capturing a model-analyte, rIgG that was dissolvedin the Sea water. Furthermore, the effect of Baltic Sea water on HMM propelled actin filament transportation in the in vitromotility assay was studied. An effect was observed with Baltic Sea water, supplemented with standard adenosine 5’-triphosphate (ATP) and oxygen scavenger systems, reducing the sliding velocity by approximately 80%. However the effect wasreversible which is of great advantage in relation to the development of a future biosensor device incorporating actomyosindriven transports. Additionally, evidence was found that the substance A slightly enhanced the function of the proteins whenstored on a motility assay surface at 4-8 °C for up to ten days, of value for practical applications of a potential biosensordevice. The results demonstrate the potential that antigen from sea water could be captured and transported by actomyosinto certain detector areas and eventually become concentrated which would increase the sensitivity of the device.

Antibody responses can be up- or down-regulated by passive administration of specific antibody together with antigen. Depending on the structure of the antigen and the antibody isotype, responses can be completely suppressed or enhanced up to a 1000-fold of what is seen in animals immunized with antigen alone. IgG suppresses primary antibody responses against erythrocytes. Suppression works well in mice lacking Fc-receptors for IgG, C1q, C3, or complement receptor 1 and 2 (CR1/2). Here, we demonstrate that IgG anti-NP given to mice together with NP-conjugated sheep erythrocytes, suppresses the generation of NP-specific extra-follicular antibody-secreting cells, NP-specific germinal center B cells, induction of memory and long-lived plasma cells. IgG increases antigen clearance but this does not explain the suppressed antibody response. It is demonstrated that IgG-mediated suppression of IgG responses is epitope specific, suggesting that epitope masking is the dominant explanation for IgG-mediated suppression of antibody responses. Both IgE and IgG3 can enhance antibody responses against soluble antigens. IgE-antigen complexes bind to recirculating B cells expressing CD23, an Fc-receptor for IgE.  Thirty minutes after intravenous administration, IgE-antigen is found in splenic follicles. Subsequently, germinal center responses, antigen-specific T cell proliferation, and antibody responses are enhanced. We show that also antigen conjugated to anti-CD23 can bind to CD23+ B cells and be transported to splenic follicles. CD11+ spleen cells, rather than CD23+ B cells, present IgE-antigen complexes to T cells. Here, it is demonstrated that CD8α− conventional dendritic cells is the CD11c+ cell population presenting IgE-antigen to T cells. IgG3-mediated enhancement is dependent on CR1/2. We find that IgG3-antigen complexes, administered intravenously to mice, bind to marginal zone B cells via CR1/2. These cells then transport IgG3-antigen into splenic follicles and deposit antigen onto follicular dendritic cells. Mice treated with FTY720, a drug which dislocates marginal zone B cells from the marginal zone, impairs this transport. Studies in bone marrow chimeric mice show that CR1/2 on both B cells and follicular dendritic cells are crucial for IgG3-mediated enhancement. In summary, these observations suggest that antibodies can feedback regulate antibody responses by modulating the access of antigen to the immune system.

An intact complement system is essential for the initiation of a normal antibody response. Antibodies can regulate their own production against the antigens that they are specific for. Both IgG3 and IgM are able to enhance the antibody response via complement. Here, we have compared the fate of OVA-TNP (ovalbumin-2,4,6-trinitrophenyl) administered intravenously to mice either alone or in complex with monoclonal IgG3 anti-TNP. IgG3-antigen complexes bind to marginal zone (MZ) B cells via complement receptors 1 and 2 (CR1/2) and are transported into splenic follicles. The majority (50% - 90%) of the antigens is deposited on follicular dendritic cells (FDC) and the antigen distribution pattern is strikingly similar to peripheral dendrites/processes of FDC already 2 h after immunization. The development of germinal centers (GC) induced by IgG3-antigen complexes is impaired in mice lacking CR1/2. Experiments on bone marrow chimeric mice show that CR1/2 expression on both MZ B cells and FDC is required for optimal IgG3-mediated enhancement of antibody responses. Complement factors C3 and C1q are essential for OVA-TNP delivery and deposition on splenic FDC. The production of IgG anti-OVA is abrogated in mice lacking CR1/2, C1q, and C3. Further, IgG3-antigen complexes dramatically upregulate the memory response against OVA-TNP by inducing OVA-specific memory cells. Besides small protein OVA, IgG3 can also upregulate humoral responses against large soluble keyhole limpet hemocyanin. To further study the role of MZ B-cells and CR1/2 in enhancement of antibody responses, a knock-in mouse strain, Cμ13, was used. IgM in this mouse strain is unable to activate complement due to a point mutation in the constant µ-heavy chain. Cμ13 mice have a higher proportion of MZ B cells, with higher CR1/2 expression, than wild-type mice. More IgG3-immune complexes are captured by MZ B cells and deposited on FDC in Cμ13 than in WT mice. In spite of this, IgG3 did not enhance the primary antibody response more efficiently in Cμ13 mice. The existence of endogenous IgM-mediated feedback regulation was suggested by the observation that GC development and antibody responses, after priming and boosting with suboptimal doses of SRBC, was lower in Cμ13 than in WT mice.

Antikörper und Antigen-bindende Proteine, die an Fluorophore, Tracer und Wirkstoffe konjugiert sind, sind einzigartige Moleküle, welche die Entwicklung wertvoller diagnostischer und therapeutischer Werkzeuge ermöglichen. Allerdings ist der Konjugationsschritt sehr anspruchsvoll und trotz intensiver Forschung noch immer ein bedeutender Engpass. Zusätzlich sind Antigen-bindende Proteine oftmals nicht dazu in der Lage, die Zellmembran zu durchdringen und im Zellinneren nicht funktionsfähig. Daher ist ihre Verwendung auf extrazelluläre Targets beschränkt, was eine bedeutende Anzahl wichtiger Antigene vernachlässigt. Beide Limitierungen bilden Kernaspekte dieser Arbeit. Mit Tub-tag labeling wurde ein neuartiges und vielseitiges Verfahren für die ortsspezifische Funktionalisierung von Biomolekülen und Antigen-bindenden Proteinen entwickelt, und so die Palette der Proteinfunktionalisierungen bedeutend erweitert. Tub-tag wurde erfolgreich für die ortsspezifische Funktionalisierung verschiedener Proteine und Antigen-bindender Nanobodies angewendet, die für konfokale Mikroskopie, Proteinanreicherung und hochauflösende Mikroskopie eingesetzt wurden. In einem weiteren Projekt wurden zellpermeable Antigen-bindende Nanobodies hergestellt und somit das schon lange Zeit bestehende Ziel, intrazelluläre Targets durch in vitro funktionalisierte Antigen-bindende Proteine zu visualisieren und manipulieren, erreicht. Hierzu wurden zwei verschiedene Nanobodies an ihrem C-Terminus cyclischen zellpenetrierenden Peptiden unter Verwendung von Expressed Protein Ligation funktionalisiert. Diese Peptide ermöglichten die Endozytose-unabhängige Aufnahme der Nanobodies mit sofortiger Bioverfügbarkeit. Mit Tub-tag labeling und der Synthese von zellpermeablen Nanobodies konnten wichtige Bottlenecks im Bereich der Proteinfunktionalisierung und Antikörperforschung adressiert werden und neue Tools für die biochemische und zellbiologische Forschung entwickelt werden. / Antibodies and antigen binding proteins conjugated to fluorophores, tracers and drugs are powerful molecules that enabled the development of valuable diagnostic and therapeutic tools. However, the conjugation itself is highly challenging and despite intense research efforts remains a severe bottleneck. In addition to that, antibodies and antigen binding proteins are often not functional within cellular environments and unable to penetrate the cellular membrane. Therefore, their use is limited to extracellular targets leaving out a vast number of important antigens. Both limitations are core aspects of the presented thesis. With Tub-tag labeling, a novel and versatile method for the site-specific functionalization of biomolecules and antigen binding proteins was developed expanding the toolbox of protein functionalization. The method is based on the microtubule enzyme tubulin tyrosine ligase. Tub-tag labeling was successfully applied for the site-specific functionalization of different proteins including antigen binding nanobodies which enabled confocal microscopy, protein enrichment and super-resolution microscopy. In addition to that, cell permeable antigen binding nanobodies have been generated constituting a long thought goal of tracking and manipulating intracellular targets by in vitro functionalized antigen binding proteins. To achieve this goal, two different nanobodies were functionalized at their C-terminus with linear and cyclic cell-penetrating peptides using expressed protein ligation. These peptides triggered the endocytosis independent uptake of the nanobodies with immediate bioavailability. Taken together, Tub-tag labeling and the generation of cell-permeable antigen binding nanobodies strongly add to the functionalization of antibodies and their use in biochemistry, cell biology and beyond.