The purpose of this study was to investigate the roll played by Further Education and Training Colleges in delivering education in South-Africa, with specific reference to technical education. As technology developed, the need for well trained artisans also increased. Technical Colleges have helped in addressing that need by increasing the theoretical knowledge of apprentices and artisans. With the political changes in South-Africa, came changes in education. Technical Colleges changed to Further Education and Training Colleges, and with that the purpose of these institutions. No longer will supplementary theoretical training be done at Technical Colleges, instead complete trade training will be done at Further Education and Training Colleges. This study has shown some problems with this new approach that need to be addressed before Further Education and Training Colleges can take their place in the provision of quality education in South -Africa. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2008.

AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF Gayla Stoner, for the Doctor of Philosophy in Education degree, presented on May 16, 2015, at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. TITLE: INSTRUCTORS' PERCEPTIONS OF ONLINE INSTRUCTION WITHIN REGISTERED APPRENTICESHIP PROGRAMS MAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. Barbara Hagler This qualitative study explored the perceptions of instructor use of online instruction within Registered Apprenticeship Programs (RAPs). The study concentrated on experienced instructors within a RAP that is part of a long-term, well-established trade union located in a major metropolitan area in the Midwestern United States. This study was informed by the methodology of a constructivist case study, which included the following methods: document review, expert panel, and in-depth interviews. Swan, Garrison, and Richardson's (2009) process-oriented model of the Community of Inquiry (CoI) with a constructivist approach served as the conceptual framework to inform this study. The purpose of this study was to contribute to the body of knowledge of online instruction within RAPs. The focus of this research study described (a) how RAP instructors perceive online instruction, (b) how their perceptions might impact the learning experiences of adult learners, and (c) how the perception of online learning may be improved among such instructors. The Office of Apprenticeship, which is within U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) Employment and Training Administration (ETA), recently revised regulations that now encourage the integration of technology-enhanced training into RAPs. Specifically, on October 29, 2008, the ETA, through its Office of Apprenticeship, exercised its statutory authority under the National Apprenticeship Act of 1937 and promulgated the first revision in more than 30 years to its longstanding regulatory rubric governing RAPs (Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Part 29) (Labor, 2008). These revisions, published in Title 29, Part 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations (29 CFR Part 29), embrace the use of "electronic media," including "interactive distance learning," as permissible instructional vehicles for the technical training of RAP-enrolled apprentices (Labor, 2008). As a result of the revision of 29 CFR Part 29, RAPs now have the option to augment their formal training programs with non-traditional instructional modalities for the benefit of both apprentice-sponsoring employers and enrolled apprentices. Interviewee quotes are used throughout the study to illustrate the range of interviewee opinion and to support conclusions. These findings may enable the instructor to provide quality instruction by demonstrating the elements of presence described in the CoI process-oriented model. In addition, my findings indicated there is evidence of a CoI process-oriented model that helps facilitate quality online learning within this specific RAP. I also discovered that RAP instructors recognize and encourage the benefits of online instruction for the apprentice, which includes (a) increased training opportunities and (b) the ability to maintain adult lifestyles. Additionally, instructors serve as mentors for the apprentice by providing guidance and opportunities in regard to achieving their educational goals. Also, I found that perceptions of online learning will continue to improve through the ongoing support provided by the RAP. Support includes technology-based workshops and pedagogical-based professional development opportunities. Finally, RAP instructors must continue to be educated on the advantages online instruction can bring to the self-directed apprentice. Primary conclusions from the study are the revelation of a strong community establishment within this specific RAP. This community of learners support the apprentice's ability to contribute positively to the workforce through the attainment of educational goals. In addition, RAP instructors take ownership of the responsibility to provide flexible educational offerings to the apprentice. These offerings include the delivery of quality courses that result in the benefits gained through online instruction. Also, instructor support of resources must continue to remain a priority for the RAP. Finally, I concluded that the self-directed apprentice has similar attributes as the ideal online learner. Flowing from the study's conclusions are several recommendations for this specific RAP, as well as the Employment and Training Administration. My recommendations include the suggestions for online lifelong learning and professional development course offerings, as well as the comparison of the learning outcomes of apprentices based on delivery modes. I recommended assessments and evaluations or online program evaluation in RAPs. Also, I recommended instructor creation of a mechanism for evaluating the quality of online instruction within RAPs. I recommended that RAPs continue to consider additional paths for sustainable funding. Additionally, I recommended that RAP instructors should receive more knowledge and application training in regard to the utilization of the process-oriented model theoretical framework of the Community of Inquiry. Finally, I recommended the creation of a national advisory sub-committee to serve the Federal Advisory Committee on Apprenticeship. The sub-committee would be charged with the purpose of understanding and disseminating educational and technological instruction to enhance RAPs.

A presente dissertação é fruto da experiência profissional da autora como instrutora em um Programa de Aprendizagem situado no município de Porto Alegre/RS e tem como objetivo investigar a maneira pela qual os jovens são inseridos no mundo do trabalho amparados pela Lei da Aprendizagem (Lei 10.097/2000). Trata-se de um estudo de caso de caráter qualitativo, com aproximação ao Materialismo Histórico-Dialético. Embasa-se nas ideias de Karl Marx, no que refere à análise da sociedade capitalista e à concepção de trabalho; nos estudos de Gaudêncio Frigotto para fundamentar a relação trabalho-educação na perspectiva do trabalho e na abordagem da Teoria do Capital Humano, para fundamentar a relação educação e trabalho na perspectiva do capital. Os estudos de Acácia Kuenzer, István Mészáros, Dermeval Saviani e Virgínia Fontes também foram essenciais para as reflexões produzidas, situando o fenômeno social nas relações de produção capitalista. Com a intenção de obter informações sobre a produção acadêmica referente a esta temática, realizamos uma pesquisa utilizando como fontes de busca o Banco de Teses e Dissertações da CAPES, o Portal Domínio Público e o Repositório Digital da UFRGS. Durante a atuação como instrutora de aprendizagem, foram coletados dados, através de questionários, referentes às posições e significados que o Programa de Aprendizagem e a consequente inserção no mundo do trabalho têm para os jovens aprendizes iniciantes no programa. Utilizamos os dados coletados nestes questionários para embasar nossa compreensão a respeito destas posições e significados que o Programa de Aprendizagem proporciona aos jovens aprendizes. Buscamos compreender também, as posições trazidas pelo marco regulatório deste processo de inserção profissional. Nossa análise possibilitou a aproximação com outros estudos relacionados à temática, permitindonos compreender pontos em comum entre estes. Em relação à visão dos aprendizes quanto ao processo de formação para o mundo do trabalho, pudemos refletir sobre seus entendimentos quanto aos conceitos “trabalho” e “aprendizagem”, mensurar suas expectativas em relação às diferentes situações vinculadas ao mundo do trabalho, assim como pensar nas condições a que estão sujeitos neste processo de inserção e formação profissional. Nossas considerações apontam a importância que o Programa de Aprendizagem representa na inserção dos jovens ao mundo do trabalho. Os aprendizes respondentes da pesquisa consideraram o Programa um importante meio de inserção profissional, facilitando o acesso destes, mesmo que a formação propiciada pela instituição não atendesse às funções exercidas nas empresas. Porém, não podemos deixar de destacar as limitações do Programa, pois este não garante a permanência dos aprendizes após o término do contrato de aprendizagem, assim como o cumprimento da legislação em diferentes situações vivenciadas pelos aprendizes. / This dissertation is the result of the author's professional experience as a teacher in a Learning Programme in the municipality of Porto Alegre / RS, and aims to investigate the way in which young people are inserted into the world of work supported by the Apprenticeship Law (Law 10,097 / 2000). This is a case study of a qualitative nature, with the approach-Dialectical Historical Materialism. Embasa on the ideas of Karl Marx, as regards the analysis of capitalist society and the concept of work; in studies of Gaudencio Frigotto to support the workeducation relationship in view of the work and the Theory of Human Capital approach to support the education and employment relationship from the perspective of capital. Studies of Acacia Kuenzer, István Mészáros, Dermeval Saviani and Virginia Fontes were also essential for the reflections produced, putting the social phenomenon in capitalist relations of production. With the intention of obtaining information about the academic production regarding this issue, we conducted a search using the search sources such as the Bank of Theses and Dissertations from CAPES, the Portal and the Public Domain Repository of UFRGS. While acting as an instructor learning, data were collected through questionnaires, regarding the positions and meanings that the Learning Programme and subsequent insertion into the world of work have for the young beginner learners in the program. We use the data collected in these questionnaires to support our understanding of these positions and meanings that the Learning Programme provides young learners. We also seek to understand the positions brought about by this regulatory framework for professional insertion process. Our analysis enabled the approach with other related thematic studies, allowing us to understand commonalities between them. Regarding the view of learners and the training for the world of work process, we can reflect on their understandings about the concepts "labor" and "learning", to measure their expectations of different linked to the world of work situations, as well as thinking the conditions to which they are subject in this insertion and training process. Our considerations indicate the importance that the learning program represents in the inclusion of youth to the working world. Respondents apprentices research considered the program an important means of employability, facilitating their access, even if the training offered by the institution did not attend to the duties performed in the companies. However, we can not fail to highlight the limitations of the program, because this does not guarantee the permanence of the learners after the learning contract, as well as compliance with legislation in different situations experienced by the learners.

A presente dissertação é fruto da experiência profissional da autora como instrutora em um Programa de Aprendizagem situado no município de Porto Alegre/RS e tem como objetivo investigar a maneira pela qual os jovens são inseridos no mundo do trabalho amparados pela Lei da Aprendizagem (Lei 10.097/2000). Trata-se de um estudo de caso de caráter qualitativo, com aproximação ao Materialismo Histórico-Dialético. Embasa-se nas ideias de Karl Marx, no que refere à análise da sociedade capitalista e à concepção de trabalho; nos estudos de Gaudêncio Frigotto para fundamentar a relação trabalho-educação na perspectiva do trabalho e na abordagem da Teoria do Capital Humano, para fundamentar a relação educação e trabalho na perspectiva do capital. Os estudos de Acácia Kuenzer, István Mészáros, Dermeval Saviani e Virgínia Fontes também foram essenciais para as reflexões produzidas, situando o fenômeno social nas relações de produção capitalista. Com a intenção de obter informações sobre a produção acadêmica referente a esta temática, realizamos uma pesquisa utilizando como fontes de busca o Banco de Teses e Dissertações da CAPES, o Portal Domínio Público e o Repositório Digital da UFRGS. Durante a atuação como instrutora de aprendizagem, foram coletados dados, através de questionários, referentes às posições e significados que o Programa de Aprendizagem e a consequente inserção no mundo do trabalho têm para os jovens aprendizes iniciantes no programa. Utilizamos os dados coletados nestes questionários para embasar nossa compreensão a respeito destas posições e significados que o Programa de Aprendizagem proporciona aos jovens aprendizes. Buscamos compreender também, as posições trazidas pelo marco regulatório deste processo de inserção profissional. Nossa análise possibilitou a aproximação com outros estudos relacionados à temática, permitindonos compreender pontos em comum entre estes. Em relação à visão dos aprendizes quanto ao processo de formação para o mundo do trabalho, pudemos refletir sobre seus entendimentos quanto aos conceitos “trabalho” e “aprendizagem”, mensurar suas expectativas em relação às diferentes situações vinculadas ao mundo do trabalho, assim como pensar nas condições a que estão sujeitos neste processo de inserção e formação profissional. Nossas considerações apontam a importância que o Programa de Aprendizagem representa na inserção dos jovens ao mundo do trabalho. Os aprendizes respondentes da pesquisa consideraram o Programa um importante meio de inserção profissional, facilitando o acesso destes, mesmo que a formação propiciada pela instituição não atendesse às funções exercidas nas empresas. Porém, não podemos deixar de destacar as limitações do Programa, pois este não garante a permanência dos aprendizes após o término do contrato de aprendizagem, assim como o cumprimento da legislação em diferentes situações vivenciadas pelos aprendizes. / This dissertation is the result of the author's professional experience as a teacher in a Learning Programme in the municipality of Porto Alegre / RS, and aims to investigate the way in which young people are inserted into the world of work supported by the Apprenticeship Law (Law 10,097 / 2000). This is a case study of a qualitative nature, with the approach-Dialectical Historical Materialism. Embasa on the ideas of Karl Marx, as regards the analysis of capitalist society and the concept of work; in studies of Gaudencio Frigotto to support the workeducation relationship in view of the work and the Theory of Human Capital approach to support the education and employment relationship from the perspective of capital. Studies of Acacia Kuenzer, István Mészáros, Dermeval Saviani and Virginia Fontes were also essential for the reflections produced, putting the social phenomenon in capitalist relations of production. With the intention of obtaining information about the academic production regarding this issue, we conducted a search using the search sources such as the Bank of Theses and Dissertations from CAPES, the Portal and the Public Domain Repository of UFRGS. While acting as an instructor learning, data were collected through questionnaires, regarding the positions and meanings that the Learning Programme and subsequent insertion into the world of work have for the young beginner learners in the program. We use the data collected in these questionnaires to support our understanding of these positions and meanings that the Learning Programme provides young learners. We also seek to understand the positions brought about by this regulatory framework for professional insertion process. Our analysis enabled the approach with other related thematic studies, allowing us to understand commonalities between them. Regarding the view of learners and the training for the world of work process, we can reflect on their understandings about the concepts "labor" and "learning", to measure their expectations of different linked to the world of work situations, as well as thinking the conditions to which they are subject in this insertion and training process. Our considerations indicate the importance that the learning program represents in the inclusion of youth to the working world. Respondents apprentices research considered the program an important means of employability, facilitating their access, even if the training offered by the institution did not attend to the duties performed in the companies. However, we can not fail to highlight the limitations of the program, because this does not guarantee the permanence of the learners after the learning contract, as well as compliance with legislation in different situations experienced by the learners.

A presente dissertação é fruto da experiência profissional da autora como instrutora em um Programa de Aprendizagem situado no município de Porto Alegre/RS e tem como objetivo investigar a maneira pela qual os jovens são inseridos no mundo do trabalho amparados pela Lei da Aprendizagem (Lei 10.097/2000). Trata-se de um estudo de caso de caráter qualitativo, com aproximação ao Materialismo Histórico-Dialético. Embasa-se nas ideias de Karl Marx, no que refere à análise da sociedade capitalista e à concepção de trabalho; nos estudos de Gaudêncio Frigotto para fundamentar a relação trabalho-educação na perspectiva do trabalho e na abordagem da Teoria do Capital Humano, para fundamentar a relação educação e trabalho na perspectiva do capital. Os estudos de Acácia Kuenzer, István Mészáros, Dermeval Saviani e Virgínia Fontes também foram essenciais para as reflexões produzidas, situando o fenômeno social nas relações de produção capitalista. Com a intenção de obter informações sobre a produção acadêmica referente a esta temática, realizamos uma pesquisa utilizando como fontes de busca o Banco de Teses e Dissertações da CAPES, o Portal Domínio Público e o Repositório Digital da UFRGS. Durante a atuação como instrutora de aprendizagem, foram coletados dados, através de questionários, referentes às posições e significados que o Programa de Aprendizagem e a consequente inserção no mundo do trabalho têm para os jovens aprendizes iniciantes no programa. Utilizamos os dados coletados nestes questionários para embasar nossa compreensão a respeito destas posições e significados que o Programa de Aprendizagem proporciona aos jovens aprendizes. Buscamos compreender também, as posições trazidas pelo marco regulatório deste processo de inserção profissional. Nossa análise possibilitou a aproximação com outros estudos relacionados à temática, permitindonos compreender pontos em comum entre estes. Em relação à visão dos aprendizes quanto ao processo de formação para o mundo do trabalho, pudemos refletir sobre seus entendimentos quanto aos conceitos “trabalho” e “aprendizagem”, mensurar suas expectativas em relação às diferentes situações vinculadas ao mundo do trabalho, assim como pensar nas condições a que estão sujeitos neste processo de inserção e formação profissional. Nossas considerações apontam a importância que o Programa de Aprendizagem representa na inserção dos jovens ao mundo do trabalho. Os aprendizes respondentes da pesquisa consideraram o Programa um importante meio de inserção profissional, facilitando o acesso destes, mesmo que a formação propiciada pela instituição não atendesse às funções exercidas nas empresas. Porém, não podemos deixar de destacar as limitações do Programa, pois este não garante a permanência dos aprendizes após o término do contrato de aprendizagem, assim como o cumprimento da legislação em diferentes situações vivenciadas pelos aprendizes. / This dissertation is the result of the author's professional experience as a teacher in a Learning Programme in the municipality of Porto Alegre / RS, and aims to investigate the way in which young people are inserted into the world of work supported by the Apprenticeship Law (Law 10,097 / 2000). This is a case study of a qualitative nature, with the approach-Dialectical Historical Materialism. Embasa on the ideas of Karl Marx, as regards the analysis of capitalist society and the concept of work; in studies of Gaudencio Frigotto to support the workeducation relationship in view of the work and the Theory of Human Capital approach to support the education and employment relationship from the perspective of capital. Studies of Acacia Kuenzer, István Mészáros, Dermeval Saviani and Virginia Fontes were also essential for the reflections produced, putting the social phenomenon in capitalist relations of production. With the intention of obtaining information about the academic production regarding this issue, we conducted a search using the search sources such as the Bank of Theses and Dissertations from CAPES, the Portal and the Public Domain Repository of UFRGS. While acting as an instructor learning, data were collected through questionnaires, regarding the positions and meanings that the Learning Programme and subsequent insertion into the world of work have for the young beginner learners in the program. We use the data collected in these questionnaires to support our understanding of these positions and meanings that the Learning Programme provides young learners. We also seek to understand the positions brought about by this regulatory framework for professional insertion process. Our analysis enabled the approach with other related thematic studies, allowing us to understand commonalities between them. Regarding the view of learners and the training for the world of work process, we can reflect on their understandings about the concepts "labor" and "learning", to measure their expectations of different linked to the world of work situations, as well as thinking the conditions to which they are subject in this insertion and training process. Our considerations indicate the importance that the learning program represents in the inclusion of youth to the working world. Respondents apprentices research considered the program an important means of employability, facilitating their access, even if the training offered by the institution did not attend to the duties performed in the companies. However, we can not fail to highlight the limitations of the program, because this does not guarantee the permanence of the learners after the learning contract, as well as compliance with legislation in different situations experienced by the learners.

The subject of this diploma thesis is to identify the sources of motivation of employees of the company DPMB, Inc., and proposals to increase their effectiveness. The thesis focuses primarily on the practice of apprentices and their instructors, as in a key group from a future point of view. The research was conducted through a questionnaire and interviews. The results were compared with theory and consulted with management of the company. On the basis of the results, measures were proposed to eliminate, or at least minimize major found deficiencies.

This study was undertaken in an attempt to improve the vocational training in Electrical Systems and Construction done at the Sedibeng Further Education and Training Colleges. The development of vocational training in South Africa, as well as different approaches to effective teaching and learning, were investigated by doing a literature study. It was determined that a constructivist approach to teaching and learning that advocates an active, learner-centred approach to teaching and learning appears to be the most effective for vocational training. An empirical investigation was conducted to determine possible shortcomings in the current way of teaching, learning and assessment at Sedibeng Further Education and Training College. For this purpose, mixed method research with a triangulation design was employed. The quantitative part of the study utilized descriptive survey research with a questionnaire to establish Level 3 educator and learner viewpoints regarding the current nature of teaching, learning and assessment. A phenomenological strategy was used for the qualitative part of the study, which involved the use of semi-structured interviews with the management staff at the college, to obtain their perspectives regarding training at the college. The quantitative and qualitative data indicated weaknesses in the current approach to teaching, learning and assessment, and that teaching, learning and assessment practices could become more effective by incorporating constructivist teaching, learning and assessment principles that encourage active and interactive learning. Furthermore, a lack of teacher training and a lack of practical experience among educators, as well as inadequate infrastructure and ill-equipped facilities, are major contributing factors to ineffective vocational training. The practical contribution of the study is found in the teaching and learning programme for Electrical Systems and Construction based on constructivist principles that was developed to assist educators to improve the effectiveness of vocational training. / Thesis (PhD (Learning and Teaching))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013

Esta pesquisa buscou desenvolver um estudo em antropologia simbólica sobre o processo de autoformação do sujeito a partir da análise de um material de ficção autobiográfica. Este material foi elaborado com base no resgate e registro escrito de memórias da própria autora da pesquisa e teve seu início na escrita do memorial acadêmico, que forneceu elementos propícios para a compreensão do processo de formação de um eu-aprendiz. A ficção autobiográfica analisada, escrita anteriormente à pesquisa, tem como personagem principal a menina Alice, que vive suas aventuras em narrativas fantásticas, cujo simbolismo propicia uma análise fenomenológica sobre as emoções e experiências que, ao longo da vida, permitiram a formação do sujeito-autor deste trabalho, considerando-o mais do que um produto do meio social ou ambiental, mas um ser em constante formação, fruto também das suas escolhas e de suas próprias leituras do mundo. As experiências vividas e representadas no mundo simbólico de Alice consideram como parte de sua criação o contato com alguns mestres, que por meio da palavra e do convívio orientaram desejos e influenciaram escolhas ao longo da vida da autora. Para compreender a relação entre mestre e aprendiz vivida por Alice, partimos para o resgate de histórias de vida de dois mestres que tiveram papéis decisivos para a autora. Buscamos encontrar na autobiografia ficcional conexões entre estas histórias de vida, por via da mitohermenêutica, tentando entender como estas vidas foram sendo construídas e em que momento estas pessoas passaram a ser mestres e a autora, aprendiz. Uma busca sobre o eu e o outro que se constitui em mim. / This research aimed to develop an anthropological study about the subject`s self-formation process from the analysis of an autobiographical fiction. This material was elaborate based on the very author`s rescue and written record of memories and had its beginning on the writing of an academic memorial, providing favorable elements for the comprehension of the self-learner formation process. The autobiographic fiction analyzed was written before the research, has as its main subject the girl called Alice, that lived her adventures in fantastic narratives, whose symbolism foments an phenomenological analysis in the experiences and emotions that, during life, allowed the formation of this author-subjects work, considering herself more than a social and environmental media, but someone in constant formation, also a result of her choices and her own readings of the world. The experiences lived and represented in Alice`s symbolic world, consider, as part of her creation, the contact with some masters that through orality and acquaintanceship, determined desires and influenced choices along the authors life. To understand the relation between master and apprentice played by Alice, we start from the rescue of life stories of two masters that had decisive parts for the author-subject. We seek to find connections between these life stories in the fictional autobiography, via mitohermeneutics, trying to understand how these lives were being constructed and in what moment these people passed to be masters, and the author, apprentice. A search about the self, and the other that is constituted in me.

This study assessed the dilemmas associated with apprentice assessment systems in the New Apprenticeship Training and Assessment System (NATAS), (State based system), and the Modular system (National system) in Western Australia. Although both were described as competency-based systems these different schemes showed the variations that existed under this general description of training and assessment. The Modular system was a competency-based system which emphasised outcomes rather than the process of training.The emphasis on the process of training was what sustained decades of traditional apprenticeship training. The competency-based approach, discussed in detail later, was a performance-based methodology. Conceptually the apprentice either could perform a given task or task element as set by a specific performance criterion, or s/he could not. The person was judged, based upon the performance outcome to be either competent or incompetent. The basic assumption was that the person could not be partially competent.The competencies approach was a cornerstone of the Australian National training provision. It was administered by the National Training Board through an Australian Standards Framework. The key target group in this assessment of the competency area and the focus of this study was the young apprentice who would become a skilled tradesperson in a relatively short period of four years.Supporting the apprentices in the NATAS system were monitors, lecturers, and employer's members of these groups, who together with apprentices were used to gain insights into the new training initiatives.A previous study Williamson, Lowe and Boyd (1990) had looked at the Western Australian New Apprenticeship and Training System (NATAS). The intention was to develop ideas further and in greater depth using qualitative methodology in the area of effectiveness of the training and ++ / assessment system. The research also had critically assessed the Modular system (National) which in most cases progressively replaced NATAS during the period of the research.

The key to understanding a program is recognizing familiar algorithmic fragments and data structures in it. Automating this recognition process will make it easier to perform many tasks which require program understanding, e.g., maintenance, modification, and debugging. This report describes a recognition system, called the Recognizer, which automatically identifies occurrences of stereotyped computational fragments and data structures in programs. The Recognizer is able to identify these familiar fragments and structures, even though they may be expressed in a wide range of syntactic forms. It does so systematically and efficiently by using a parsing technique. Two important advances have made this possible. The first is a language-independent graphical representation for programs and programming structures which canonicalizes many syntactic features of programs. The second is an efficient graph parsing algorithm.