Corrosion characteristics of seven varieties of metals—zinc, brass C260, stainless steel 302, stainless steel 316, stainless steel 420, stainless steel 430, and stainless steel 440—in three aqueous media—Atlantic Ocean, Charles River, and deionized waters—were assessed via mass loss methods over 32 weeks, with supplemental data in the form of photomicrographic records. Concurrently, tests were conducted to determine the degree of measurement error resulting from the analytical scale used during corrosion assessment. This was accomplished by using reference samples of each type of metal and a glass vial as the container that held the metal and water samples. These error tests indicated that while the mass error associated with the metal samples was low, the error in mass associated with the vial displayed error margins two orders of magnitude larger than the error margins for the smaller metal samples. Further, control tests and statistical analysis indicated that this variation was the result of some quality inherent to the vial. The metal samples involved in the corrosion assessment experiment generally displayed corrosion characteristics in agreement with trends reported in the literature. Zinc produced the greatest quantity of corrosion residues out of all the metals studied. Brass C260 also developed visible corrosion. For example, brass C260 developed dark green/brown adherent residue and whitish blue-tinted nonadherent residue in Atlantic Ocean water, faint greenish tarnishing and some dark green spots and dots over time in Charles River water, and only faint greenish tarnish in deionized water. In contrast with zinc and brass C260, the stainless steels did not exhibit signs of significant corrosion rates excepting stainless steel 420 (SS420), which displayed pitted features surrounded by multi-colored rings on all of its Atlantic Ocean immersion samples and 25% of its Charles River immersion samples. Atlantic Ocean water generally caused the greatest degree of corrosion for all metals, followed by Charles River water, then deionized water, except in the case of zinc. Residues found on zinc samples immersed in the three different water types were similar to each other in coloration. SS420 samples immersed in different waters also displayed similar-colored residues. Comparisons between the corrosion features of SS420 and the single stainless steel 430 and 440 samples that did show visible corrosion in Atlantic Ocean water suggested that minor compositional variations between stainless steels have little effect on the visual characteristics of the corrosion residues they form. Corrosion rates were calculated using linear regressions of the mass loss data for all metal sample sets. While some of these corrosion rates approached literature-reported values for the metal in question, the distributions of the mass loss data sets indicated that any mass changes that resulted from corrosion were likely too small for the electronic scale to detect. Consequently, it is recommended that future corrosion studies using the mass loss method utilize metal samples similar in size to objects typically found at crime scenes.

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With the advancement and accessibility of local probing techniques that can operate at the submicron scale it has become possible to analyse the local corrosion properties of industrially important metallic materials and relate these properties to microstructure characteristics of the same materials. In this doctoral study the focus has been on copper-zinc samples, both as industrial brass alloys and as micro-patterned copper-zinc samples. They have been exposed to dilute chloride solutions and to an atmosphere that mimics indoor conditions that cause corrosion. The main goal has been to investigate micro-galvanic effects caused by surface heterogeneities in the copper-zinc samples, and the corrosion inhibition ability of a self-assembled octadecanethiol (ODT, CH3(CH2)17SH) monolayer when applied to these heterogeneous samples. The local chemistry, local electrochemistry, and local surface chemistry in the presence of the copper-zinc galvanic couplings have been elucidated, and their importance has been investigated for corrosion initiation, propagation, termination, and inhibition. A broad spectrum of local probe techniques has been utilised. They include optical microscopy (ex situ and in situ), electrochemical techniques, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy and confocal Raman spectroscopy. In addition, infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (in situ) and vibrational sum frequency spectroscopy have been employed to analyse the formation of corrosion products and monitor the corrosion kinetics.    A characteristic selective zinc dissolution process was triggered in non-metallic inclusions when a brass alloy was exposed to 1 mM NaCl. Disc-like corrosion areas spread radially outwards from the inclusions, the shape and termination of which was attributed to accessibility to chloride ions. An ODT-layer deposited on brass retarded access to chloride ions at the brass surface and slowed down the radial corrosion process. Instead a delayed formation of filiform-like corrosion was observed.    Upon exposure of the copper-zinc patterned sample to humidified air containing formic acid, micro-galvanic effects were induced by the copper patches on zinc that accelerated the zinc dissolution in the thin aqueous adlayer with concomitant precipitation of zinc formate. The micro-galvanic effects not only resulted in accelerated corrosion rates for zinc, but also in broadening of shapes and atomic structures for the corrosion products formed. Crystalline zinc oxide and zinc formate were observed on the copper-zinc patterned samples, whereas amorphous zinc oxide and zinc formate were formed on the bare zinc surface. Micro-galvanic effects occurred in the two-phase Cu40Zn (Cu with 40 wt% Zn) brass alloy as well, induced by more zinc-rich beta-phase grains surrounded by an alpha matrix with lower zinc-content.    The application of a self-assembled monolayer of ODT for corrosion inhibition of pure zinc and the patterned copper-zinc samples was also explored. In situ infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy analyses showed that ODT initially reduced the rate of zinc formate formation on pure zinc and on the copper-zinc micro-patterned sample. However, the inhibition efficiency was slightly reduced with exposure time due to local removal of ODT on pure zinc and on the micro-patterned samples. This caused micro-galvanic effects that resulted in increased rates of zinc formate formation on the ODT-covered samples – even higher than on the uncovered samples. When applied to the single-phase Cu20Zn alloy, ODT resulted in a corrosion inhibition that was comparable to that of pure copper, a metal for which ODT has shown very good corrosion inhibition. On double-phase Cu40Zn local galvanic effects resulted in less efficient corrosion inhibition and more abundant corrosion products than on Cu20Zn. Based on vibrational sum frequency spectroscopy, the ODT-layer retained its well-ordered molecular structure throughout the exposure to both Cu20Zn and Cu40Zn.    In all, the inhibiting action of the ODT-layer was attributed to the transport hindrance of corrosion promoters (O2, H2O, and HCOOH) to the brass surface. This result suggests that ODT can function as a temporary corrosion inhibitor for brass exposed to benign indoor environments. / Med utvecklingen av och tillgången till lokala analysmetoder som kan ge information med en lateral upplösning på mindre än en mikrometer har det blivit möjligt att analysera lokala korrosionsegenskaper hos industriellt viktiga metalliska material och relatera dessa egenskaper till mikrostrukturen hos samma material. I doktorsavhandlingen har denna möjlighet utnyttjats för koppar-zinkprover, dels som industriella mässingslegeringar dels som mikro-mönstrade koppar-zinkprover, som exponerats för utspädda kloridlösningar samt för en atmosfär som kan efterlikna den atmosfäriska korrosionen inomhus. Det huvudsakliga målet har varit att undersöka dels mikro-galvaniska korrosionseffekter som orsakas av heterogeniteter på koppar-zinkytorna dels korrosionsförmågan hos självorganiserande monolager av oktadekantiol (ODT, CH3(CH2)17SH) vid adsorption på dessa heterogena ytor. På så vis har den lokala kemin, ytkemin och elektrokemin kunnat klarläggas i närvaro av galvaniska effekter, och dess betydelse har undersökts för korrosionsprocessens initiering, propagering, terminering och inhibering. Ett brett spektrum av lokala analysmetoder har utnyttjats. De innefattar ljusoptisk mikroskopi (ex situ och in situ), elektrokemiska metoder, svepelektronmikroskopi med energidispersiv röntgen-spektroskopi, atomkraftsmikroskopi för mikro-kartering och Voltapotentialmätningar samt konfokal Raman-spektroskopi. Dessutom har infrarödreflektions absorptionsspektroskopi (in situ) och vibrationssummafrekvens spektroskopi (engelska: vibrational sum frequency generation) använts.    När en mässingslegering exponerades för 1 mM NaCl observerades en selektiv utlösning av zink med karakteristiskt utseende som växte radiellt från icke-metalliska inneslutningar för att bilda cirkulärt formade korrosionsområden. Formen och termineringen av denna korrosionsprocess bestäms av tillgången på kloridjoner. När ett monolager av ODT adsorberades på mässingslegeringen hämmades tillgången av kloridjoner på mässingsytan och den radiella korrosionsprocessen stannade upp. Istället iakttogs en fördröjd bildning av s.k. filiform korrosion.    Vid exponering av mikro-mönstrade koppar-zinkprover för befuktad luft med låga tillsatser av myrsyra inducerades mikro-galvaniska effekter i gränsen mellan koppar och zink som accelererade utlösningen av zink i den adsorberade fuktfilmen på provet, under samtidig utfällning av zinkformat. De mikro-galvaniska effekterna resulterade inte bara i förhöjda korrosionshastigheter jämfört med de på ren zink, utan även i andra faser hos bildade korrosionsprodukter. På de mikro-mönstrade koppar-zinkproverna bildades kristallint zinkoxid och zinkformat, under det att amorft zinkoxid och zinkhydroxyformat bildades på ren zink. Mikrogalvaniska effekter observerades även i den tvåfasiga mässingslegeringen Cu40Zn (Cu med 40 vikt-% Zn) orsakade av kontakten mellan den mer zinkrika beta-fasen och den omgivande alfa-fasen med lägre zinkhalt.    Appliceringen av ett självorganiserat monolager av ODT för korrosionsinhibering av ren zink och koppar-zinkprover har också undersöks. In situ infrarödreflektions absorptionsspektroskopi visade att adsorberat ODT initialt hämmade bildningen av zinkformat på ren zink och på de mikro-mönstrade koppar-zinkproverna. Med tiden minskade ODTs korrosionsinhiberings-förmåga på grund av att ODTs vidhäftning lokalt försvann. De mikro-galvaniska effekter som därigenom uppstod resulterade i bildandet av zinkformat som med tiden blev snabbare på de ODT-belagda proverna än på motsvarande prover utan ODT. När ODT applicerades på den enfasiga mässingslegeringen Cu20Zn resulterade detta i en korrosionsinhibering som var jämförbar med den på ren koppar, en metall på vilken ODT tidigare visat mycket bra korrosionsskydd. På den tvåfasiga mässingslegeringen Cu40Zn ledde lokala galvaniska effekter till en mindre effektiv korrosions-inhibering och en rikligare mängd korrosionsprodukter än på Cu20Zn. Baserat på vibrationssummafrekvens spektroskopi behöll ODT-lagret dess välordnade struktur under hela exponeringen på både Cu20Zn och Cu40Zn.    ODTs korrosionsinhibering tillskrivs främst transport-hämningen av korrosionsstimulatorer (O2, H2O och HCOOH) till mässingsytan och antyder att ODT kan fungera som en temporär korrosionsinhibitor för mässing i milda inomhusmiljöer. / <p>QC 20140915</p>

La compréhension des processus de corrosion est un élément majeur de l’étude de la durabilité des matériaux en environnements agressifs. C’est dans ce cadre que ce travail de thèse se situe. L’objectif est d’apporter un nouvel éclairage sur les processus de corrosion du nickel en milieu aqueux en utilisant la simulation par dynamique moléculaire avec un champ de force réactif « ReaxFF ».Nous nous sommes particulièrement intéressé aux réactions entres les molécules d’eau et les surfaces monocristallines de nickel. Ces résultats ont montré aucune dissociation de l’eau sur les surfaces. Par ailleurs, une adsorption des molécules en bicouche a été constatée, traduisant la polarisation mutuelle entre l’eau et le nickel, ce que confirme le calcul de charges. La surface du métal s’est chargée positivement alors que la première couche d’eau se charge négativement, reproduisant la double couche électrique. L’introduction d’un champ électrique extérieur a conditionné la réaction entre l’eau et le nickel. La présence du champ a permis d’observer les différentes étapes d’oxydation du nickel : l’adsorption des molécules d’eau puis leurs dissociations en OH- et H3O+. La dissolution des atomes de nickel à la surface puis la pénétration de O dans Ni. Ces processus d’oxydation sont répétés au cours du temps pour obtenir le film d’oxyde. L’épaisseur du film d’oxyde dépend linéairement de l’intensité du champ électrique. La cinétique d’oxydation est améliorée pour la surface (110) par rapport aux autres surfaces étudiées. L’étude de l’oxydation d’un bicristal de nickel a montré des processus identique. Par ailleurs, nous avons constaté que les premiers germes d’oxydation se sont produits au niveau des joints de grains et se sont propagés sur toute la surface. L’ensemble de ces résultats est en bon accord avec les observations expérimentales / Understanding of corrosion processes is important for the study of the durability of materials in aggressive environment. The objective is to provide new lights on the corrosion processes of nickel in aqueous condition with molecular dynamics simulation using a reactive force field "ReaxFF."We are particularly interested by the reaction between water molecules and mono-crystalline surfaces of nickel. No dissociation of water was showed on the surfaces. Moreover, an adsorption of molecules in bilayer was observed, reflecting the mutual polarization between water and nickel, which confirms the charge calculation. The metal surface is positively charged and the first water layer charged negatively, reproducing the electrical double layer. The introduction of an external electric field has conditioned the reaction between water and nickel. The presence of the field permits to observe the different stages of nickel corrosion: adsorption of water molecules, their dissociation into OH- and H3O+, the dissolution of the nickel atoms on the surface and the penetration of O in Ni. These oxidation processes are repeated over time to obtain the oxide film. The thickness of the oxide film depends linearly on the electric field intensity. The oxidation kinetics is improved to the surface (110) compared with other orientations studied. All these results are in good agreement with experimental observations

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