This dissertation explores how, between 1879 and 1945, American archaeologists contributed to the expansion of the U.S. state’s presence overseas and in the western territories; how they legitimated, propagated, and amplified imperial projects across the globe; and how they spurred broader American investments in the world and antiquity. It follows archaeologists out of museums and lecture halls and into the field, where their research demanded the cultivation of local elites for access to sites; organization of indigenous peoples, local peasants, and migrant workers into labor regimes; enlistment of diplomatic aid to secure possession of finds; and collaboration with the Departments of War and the Interior to institute policies of protection and surveillance. Whether they operated in Mediterranean states within the political orbit of Europe’s Great Powers, the colonial-territorial American Southwest, United Fruit enclaves in Guatemala, British-controlled Palestine, or occupied Japan—American archaeologists considered disputed and less-than sovereign spaces the most bountiful fields for harvesting artifacts. Contested antiquities—which no group or nation bore singular possession—then followed archaeologists back to the United States, where Americans staked their own claims to them, using these remnants of the past to understand themselves as heirs to collective—Western, settler, pan-American, Judeo-Christian, or world—heritages. Chapter one sets the stage by revealing how government agents, namely consuls, once spearheaded American contributions to archaeological research. Chapter two examines the Archaeological Institute of America’s first projects—conducting a major excavation and establishing a field school—in the Ottoman Empire and Greece, two ostensibly sovereign nations, and the appeal of Western civilization. Chapter three explores the relationship between archaeologists and settler-colonialism in New Mexico prior to statehood. Chapter four connects archaeological work at the Maya site of Quiriguá to the informal-imperial projects and pan-American ideas that structured U.S.-Central American relations. Chapter five details the complex interactions between American archaeologists, British authorities, Jewish settlers, and local Arabs in the Palestine Mandate. Chapter six explores the height of American archaeologists’ collaboration with the U.S. government—serving as advisors in the Second World War—and the development of the world heritage idea amid the “war without mercy” in the Pacific. / 2023-01-27T00:00:00Z

The history of archaeological research in the Flagstaff area since 1851 is reviewed. The thesis of this study is that critical analysis of archaeological history can yield significant insights into both the process and the products of archaeological research. These insights in turn may lead to conclusions about the general nature of intellectual disputes and transitions in archaeology, and the validity of particular reconstructions and explanations of prehistoric behavior. The history of archaeological research in the Flagstaff area is broken into nine major divisions, each of which is separated by a significant intellectual or institutional transition. Particular attention is devoted to historical analysis of the period immediately before World War II, when the fundamental concepts and methods of Flagstaff archaeology were developed by Harold Colton and his associates at the Museum of Northern Arizona (MNA). These developments took place during a remarkably prolific period of archaeological investigation designed to disclose a prehistoric sequence of occupation conceived by MNA workers as "one grand history" of the Hopi people. It is argued, on the basis of the historical review, that Flagstaff archaeology, in its specific examples, indeed reveals much about the nature of intellectual disputes and transitions in American archaeology, and demonstrates that knowledge of the prehistoric past can indeed be cumulative. The study concludes with specific recommendations for improving such knowledge in the Flagstaff area, particularly for the issues of chronology and ceramic taxonomy.

Like its ancestral disciplines, archaeology is no stranger to human conflict. Greek and Roman warfare often resulted in the sacking of cities, with all property (public, private, temple) taken as booty and the population and heritage exterminated or absorbed (men killed, women and children sold into slavery). In addition to the personal danger risked in a hostile region, archaeologists may also be thrust into deep and divisive cultural embattlements. Cultural property may be destroyed, intentionally or unintentionally. Graves, including potential evidence of genocide or mass murder, may be disturbed. Archaeologists may find themselves embroiled in many of these disputes and violent events, leading to difficult and complex ethical issues. This viperous nest of ethical concerns is amplified where an archaeologist is present as part of, or perceived to be related to, an invading or occupying military force. The goal of this thesis is to develop an engaging and pragmatic virtue-based professional ethic that may guide an archaeologist and archaeology through the ethical bramble bush raised by modern human conflict. The present ethical systems, based primarily on utilitarian or deontological principles manifested in ethical codes, are deficient because they fail to establish the archaeologist as a trustee (active or passive) in a political dynamic, elevate the archaeological record even when these professional codes purport to discount its importance, fail to address adequately the matrix of relationships in a manner that ensures trust across the interests of all stakeholders – both present and past, and dramatically fail to identify and develop the central thrust of a professional ethic (as opposed to personal moral judgment) in the first instance.

Depuis un siècle, l'aménagement intensif du territoire français, sans prise en compte du patrimoine archéologique a entrainé la destruction irréversible d'un nombre incalculable de sites. Aujourd'hui ce processus est ralenti. La restructuration du cœur historique des villes et les grands projets de développement local sont accompagnés par les archéologues. Ils favorisent ainsi un renouvellement sans précédent de la connaissance de notre histoire. C'est une chance et une révolution qu'il faut mener de front avec la profonde mutation des sources médiatiques. L'archéologie est tributaire des médias même si elle a parfois du mal à s'adapter à la contrainte de « l'immédiat ». Car ils influencent les opinions surtout en matière culturelle, hiérarchisent les événements de l'actualité mettant l'accent sur certains et en laissant d'autres dans l'ombre. La subjectivité est grande et les médias de référence (presse nationale quotidienne et télévision) donnent le ton, définissent la tendance. Ces derniers sont furtivement suivis par la presse locale qui cherche à mettre les faits à la portée de leur lectorat. La porte qui s'ouvre avec l'audiovisuel et surtout le réseau tentaculaire et infini du web oblige les archéologues à repenser le cadrage de l'information. L'identité, les origines, le patrimoine universel, la bataille des idées et des cultures peuvent aussi passionner d'autres publics sur internet avec d'autres réseaux que les sources classiques et canalisées. Les comportement des trois protagonistes de ce sujet ; archéologues, journalistes et publics ont ici été étudiés à partir d'un corpus d'articles, d'entretiens et d'études d'opinion. / Since a century, the intensive development of the French territory, without consideration of the archaeological heritage, has driven to the irreversible destruction of an incalculable number of sites. Today this process is slowed down. The restructuring of the historic heart of cities and importants projects of local planning are accompanied by the archaeologists. They unprecedented remodelled the knowledge of our history. It is a luck and a révolution which need to be manage with the profound transformation of the media. Archaeology need media even if it's sometimes difficult to adapt it at the constraint of the quickness which is neccessary in the word's information. Because media influence the opinions especially in cultural field, organize into a hierarchy the events of the current, emphasizing some and leaving the others in the shadow. The subjectivity is important and the reference media (daily national press and television) set the tone, define the tendency. These last ones are followed in by the local press which tries to put the facts within the reach of their readership. The door which opens, with the broadcasting and especially the tentacular and infinite network of Web, oblige the archaeologists to rethink the centring of the information. Identity, origins, universal heritage, battle of the ideas and cultures, can fascinate as well an other public on the Internet.

Ochre is found at many Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites and its use is often attributed by archaeologists to enhanced mental abilities and symbolism. However, the links between the visible uses of ochre, cognition and symbolism have not been clearly demonstrated. Here it is argued that by understanding ochre processing technology and some of the stages involved in using ochre, one can determine the skill, knowledge and cognitive abilities required to execute those activities. In order to understand the usetraces found on ochre, and to enable the identification of them, as well as the types of ochre used, experiments were first performed with geological ochre specimens. Ochre pieces collected from the Sibudu surrounds were used experimentally for a variety of grinding, scoring and rubbing activities. All use-traces created on the ochre piece during an activity were macro- and microscopically examined, recorded and compared. Experimental ochre pieces ground against a coarse or fine-grained slab develop parallel striations. Grinding results in significant changes to the surface shape of the ochre, and often results in faceted edges. Scoring can be performed with the intention to create powder, or to create a design. The incisions created from scoring often do not reach all the edges of the used surface and they regularly have frayed terminations. A frayed incision termination shows that the incision was created by multiple scoring strokes. When ochre is scored to manufacture powder the incisions that are generated are parallel groups of grooves with erratically oriented grooves as well. Grooves created through both grinding and scoring have microstriations within them and they show a range of profile shapes. The most common use-wear from rubbing ochre on soft materials is smoothing, edge rounding and polish. Microstriations and metallic lustre occasionally form during rubbing. The collection of utilised experimental ochre formed a comparative collection for the examination of the Sibudu ochre. The main body of this research comprises a study of the Middle Stone Age ochre assemblage from Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Sibudu has a large Middle Stone Age ochre assemblage of over 9000 pieces of ochre from layers dating between ~77 ka and ~37.6 ka. All pieces were examined to determine the types of ochre used and to inspect all use-traces present on the pieces. The assemblage comprises 5449 ochre pieces iv >8 mm, including 682 pieces with markings from use. The pre-Still Bay (~77 ka) and Howiesons Poort (~65–62 ka) layers have the highest percentage of utilised pieces. Bright-red ochre was preferentially selected for use throughout most of sequence. There is evidence of the preferential selection of specific types of ochre for use in the Sibudu assemblage. Shale and pieces with medium hardness values are common throughout the sequence. Grain sizes change through time – pieces with clayey grain sizes are favoured during the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, whereas silty grain sizes are preferred in the younger Middle Stone Age occupations. High frequencies of bright-red amongst the utilised pieces, coupled with high frequencies of yellow or orange pieces with no evidence of use, suggest that colour choices were deliberate and not a product of postdepositional heating. Chemical analysis of a sample of utilised pieces indicates that they all contain iron, silicon, aluminium and calcium; many pieces contain hematite and some contain maghemite. Use-traces were divided into activity categories, based on experimental results. Combined grinding and rubbing is the most frequent activity for which ochre pieces were used. Grinding and rubbing use-wear also occurs independently on many pieces. Scored pieces are rare, but are more frequent in the pre-Still Bay (~77 ka) industry than elsewhere in the sequence. Some of the incisions appear to be deliberate engravings, and parallel lines and fan-like marks are the most often repeated patterns. Use-traces acquired during powder-producing activities predominate, implying a desire to create ochre powder. Powder-producing activities were mainly performed with bright-red pieces, while minimal scoring is mainly present on brown-red pieces. Pieces with mica inclusions are not common, but were frequently used for powder-producing activities. Once the activities performed with ochre were established, thought-and-action sequences, or cognigrams, were constructed. This helped establish the steps involved in each activity and the temporal and physical distance between the commencement of a task to its completion. Inferential sequences were constructed to establish the procedures and knowledge needed to complete an activity, thereby establishing the cognitive prerequisites. Cognitive interpretations are made using the concept of enhanced executive functions of the brain. The construction of the inferential thoughtv and-action sequences showed that the various ways that ochre was used have different cognitive requirements. Powder-production alone is not an indicator of complex cognitive processes, although some planning, foresight and knowledge of materials is required. Some of the powder was used in the creation of hafting adhesives, which is a cognitively demanding process requiring attention-switching ability, response inhibition and abstract thought. Grinding ochre and then rubbing the piece on a soft material for the direct transfer of powder does require some complex mental abilities, such as multi-tasking and switching attention. Scoring a piece of ochre with a sharp tool does not necessitate enhanced executive functions, but some engravings demonstrate foresight, intentionality and an awareness of space and symmetry that may demonstrate abstract thought. This research provides a complete description of the Middle Stone Age ochre assemblage at Sibudu, and establishes the way that ochre was used at the site. This contributes to the debate on the advent of enhanced behaviours in the past by providing insight into the cognitive abilities required by the ochre users. It offers a method of analysing ochre use in the past by drawing on cognitive theory and the visible applications of ochre. Both simple and complex cognitive abilities were required for ochre activities at Sibudu. The requirement for cognitively complex abilities in some of the ochre-related activities at Sibudu suggests that the people living there during the MSA had advanced mental capabilities like modern humans living today. This research shows how ochre use can be employed as a proxy for cognitive capabilities, and can therefore shed light on the evolution of the modern mind.

Community archaeology's broader objectives include increasing public understanding of archaeology and making archaeology more relevant to people's day to day lives. Fulfilling these goals could be beneficial to the public in terms of their gaining more agency in, and more access to, archaeology; and it could be beneficial to archaeologists in terms of increasing public support for archaeological work. While many community archaeologists report success, few authors critically evaluate the experience and outcomes of community archaeology. As a result, little data-based understanding exists about what is gained through community archaeology. This project explores that question through three primary means: 1) a community archaeology field research project on Sauvie Island in Portland, Oregon, in which I interview public (n=16) and professional (n=6) participants before and after their involvement in fieldwork, 2) interviews with local professional archaeologists (n=15) from various backgrounds, and 3) a broad baseline face-to-face survey of the Portland area public (n=254). The latter two data collection methods provide supporting and comparative information intended to add layers of meaning to the analysis of the Sauvie Island field project participants' thoughts, feelings, and experiences related to the field project. My results show that the majority of the non-archaeologist public have positive and often enthusiastic attitudes towards archaeology. These attitudes remain or are reinforced through participation in community archaeology. This trend appears to exist irrespective of partial public understandings of archaeology, wherein many members of the public are aware of real aspects of archaeology, but simultaneously express inaccurate perceptions of the nature of archaeology. Archaeologists demonstrate misunderstandings of the public, particularly in terms of public participation in community archaeology leading to the destruction of sites or the breakdown of scientific rigor. These fears often lack data-based or experiential support, and are less present in archaeologists with more experience working with the public. Generally, archaeologists enjoy interaction with the public in participatory contexts, and see various benefits to public involvement. My research shows that tying archaeology to present day life, to intimate technical details of the archaeological fieldwork experience, and to engagement with the natural landscape, are crucial aspects of increasing archaeology's relevance to the public. Despite misunderstandings on both sides, mutually beneficial public/professional involvement in community archaeology is possible.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2014. / This dissertation provides an analysis of the faunal remains excavated from the BSV and BSS layers from Sibudu Cave, Kwa Zulu-Natal. Based on ceramics, presence of daga floors and glass beads found within the layers the BSV and BSS were classified as dating to the Iron Age period (AD 900-1660) . The met hod of analysis follows Driver (2005). The presence of taxa shows that na tural occupants, non-human predators and human occupants accumulated the faunal material in Sibudu Cave. The taxa identified provide strong indication that at this time the site was predominantly occupied by farmers, who hunted wild ungulates and gathered marine taxa. The occupants may have used the site as a temporary shelter between camps or settlements and coastal sites. There is also some indication that the cave was utilised for religious purposes .

No description available.

En introduction générale, est dressé un état de la Recherche sur trois thématiques : l’histoire et l’épistémologie de l’archéologie, le genre biographique, les archives et les correspondances scientifiques. Il est suivi d’une présentation du sujet de thèse et de ses problématiques. La première partie est une biographie consacrée à Henry Corot (1864-1941), figure emblématique de l’archéologie pré- et protohistorique en région Bourgogne. Sa vie et son œuvre sont appréhendées, principalement, au travers l’exploitation de son fonds d’archives – lequel comprend des centaines de dossiers de travail et une correspondance de 2500 lettres -. La deuxième partie est consacrée aux correspondants de H. Corot. Un répertoire biographique, comptant 490 entrées, rassemble les notices biographiques et les publications de ces archéologues. Suivent : le recrutement géographique et le recrutement sociologique de ces savants, le thème de la sociabilité à l’époque de H. Corot à travers l’analyse de sa correspondance, enfin, l’analyse des publications de ces archéologues, soit un corpus de 1300 références. Cette thèse permet à travers la biographie singulière de H. Corot d’envisager une perspective plus large, celle de biographies collectives, qui à leur tour rendent possible l’élargissement du propos à l’histoire et à l’épistémologie de la recherche protohistorique sous la Troisième République venant ainsi combler une importante lacune dans la production universitaire intéressant l’histoire de l’archéologie. / The general introduction sets up a state of research on three themes : history and epistemology of archaeology, biographical genre, archives and scientists correspondences. Next, there is a presentation of thesis subject and its problematic. The first part is about Henry Corot’s biography (1864-1941). He was an emblematic figure in prehistoric and protohistoric archeology in Bourgogne area. His life and his work are apprehended thanks to the study of his archives containing hundreds of working folders and a correspondence of 2500 letters. The second part focus on H. Corot’s correspondents. A biographic directory includes biographical information and all publications of 490 French and foreign archaeologists. To follow, this thesis centers on: the geographical and sociological recruitment of these archaeologists, the topic of sociability at the time of H. Corot through the analysis of his correspondence, and the examination of the publications of these archaeologists (corpus of 1300 references). To conclude, this thesis allows, through the H. Corot’s singular biography, to consider a broader view, the collective biographies, which in turn make it possible the enlargement at history and epistemology of research in prehistory from the Third Republic and fill an important gap in the academic production about archaeology history.

Thesis (Kandidatspeciale / MA)--Institute of Anthropology, University of Copenhagen. / Title from screen page; viewed 25 July 2005. Includes bibliographical references. Also available in print format.