In order to achieve binding Government targets towards the decarbonisation of the electricity network, the GB power system is undergoing an unprecedented amount of change. A series of new technologies designed to integrate massive volumes of renewable generation, predominantly in the form of offshore wind, asynchronously connecting to the periphery of the transmission system, are transforming the requirements of the network. This displacement of traditional thermal generation is leading to a significant reduction in system inertia, thus making the task of system operation more challenging. It is therefore deemed necessary to develop tools and technologies that provide far greater insight into the state of the power system in real-time and give rise to methods for improving offline modelling practices through an enhanced understanding of the systems performance. To that extent PMUs are seen as one of the key enablers of the Smart Grid, providing accurate time-synchronised measurements on the state of the power system, allowing the true dynamics of the power system to be captured and analysed. This thesis provides an analysis of the existing PMU deployment on the GB transmission system with a view to the future system monitoring requirements. A critical evaluation and comparison is also provided on the suitability of a University based Low Voltage PMU network to further enhance the visibility of the GB system. In addition a novel event detection algorithm based on Detrended Fluctuation Analysis is developed and demonstrated, designed to determine the exact start time of a transmission event, as well as the suitability of such an event for additional transmission system analysis, namely inertia estimation. Finally, a reliable method for the estimation of total system inertia is proposed that includes an estimate of the contribution from residual sources, of which there is currently no visibility. The proposed method identifies the importance of regional inertia and its impact to the operation of the GB transmission system.

The power system has long been operated in a shroud of introspection. Only recently have dynamic, wide-area time synchronized grid measurements brought to light the complex relationships between large machines thousands of miles apart. These measurements are invaluable to understanding the health of the system in real time, for disturbances to the balance between generation and load are manifest in the propagation of electromechanical waves throughout the grid. The global perspective of wide-area measurements provides a platform from which the destructive effects of these disturbances can be avoided. Virginia Tech's distributed network of low voltage frequency monitors, FNET, is able to track these waves as they travel throughout the North American interconnected grids. In contrast to other wide-area measurement systems, the ability to easily measure frequency throughout the grid provides a way to identify, locate, and analyze disturbances with high dynamic accuracy. The unique statistical properties of wide-area measurements require robust tools in order to accurately understand the nature of these events. Expert systems and data conditioning can then be used to quantify the magnitude and location of these disturbances without requiring any knowledge of the system state or topology. Adaptive application of these robust methods form the basis for real-time situational awareness and control. While automated control of the power system rarely utilize wide-area measurements, global insight into grid behavior can only improve disturbance rejection. / Ph. D.

Because of a move from Independent System Operators (ISOs) to Regional Transmission Operators (RTOs), a need for real-time wide-area system monitoring has arisen. The state estimator (SE) is the tool currently used in power systems for real-time monitoring. Because current SE techniques become operationally expensive on such large systems, it is beneficial to consider alternate methods for wide-area state estimation (WASE). In particular, hierarchal methods for WASE become beneficial for large systems because of their speed of operation and relatively low data volume. This study tests four hierarchal WASE methods - two taken from literature, and two developed by the author — and compares them with the use of an integrated wide-area estimator. Additionally, because of their accurate and readily available measurement capability, the inclusion of phasor measurement unit (PMU) data in the WASE methods is examined. For the purpose of realistically integrating an RTO WASE with current ISOs, the methods are constrained so that they do not require sensitive data, nor do they alter the operation of the ISOs SE in any way. The methods are tested for speed of operation, global and local accuracy, and robustness under bad data and data loss. / Master of Science

<p>Today’s electrical transmission & distribution systems, are facing a number of challenges related to changing environmental, technical and business factors. Among these factors are, increased environmental restrictions leading to higher share of production from renewable and uncontrollable sources as well as local environmental concerns regarding construction of new transmission and distribution lines. The re-regulation of the electricity market has created a dynamic environment in which multiple organizations have to coordinate and cooperate in the operation and control of the power system. Finally, the high rate of devel-opment within the ICT field is creating many new opportunities for power system opera-tion and control, thanks to introduction of new technologies for measurement, communi-cation and automation.</p><p>As a result of these factors, Wide Area Monitoring and Control (WAMC) systems have been proposed. WAMC systems utilize new ICT based technologies to offer more accurate and timely data on the state of the power system. WAMC systems utilize Phasor Measure-ment Units (PMUs) that have higher data rates and are time synchronised using, GPS satel-lites. This allows synchronized observation of the dynamics of the power system, making it possible to manage the system at a more efficient and responsive level and apply wide area control and protection schemes. The success WAMC systems, on the other hand, are largely dependent on the performance of the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure that would support them.</p><p>This thesis investigates the requirements on, and suitability of the ICT systems that support WAMC systems. This was done by identifying WAMC applications and the elicitation of their requirements. Furthermore, a set of simulation projects were carried out to determine the communication system characteristics such as delay and the impact of this delay on the WAMC system.</p><p>This thesis has several contributions. First, it provides summary and analysis of WAMC application priorities and requirements in the Nordic region. Secondly it provides simula-tion based comparison and evaluation of communication paradigms for WAMC systems. The research documented in this thesis addresses these paradigms by providing a compari-son and evaluation through simulation. Thirdly, the thesis provides insight to the possible sources of delay in WAMC architecture and the impact of these delays on data quality specifically data incompleteness. This provides insight on what applications are important to practitioners and what is the expected performance of these applications, as seen from the power system control and operation point of view.</p>

Neste trabalho implementamos as grandezas operacionais no sistema de monitoração de área e individual. Determinamos a combinação ideal dos detectores termoluminescentes para constituírem os monitores de radiação como sendo: dois de fluoreto de cálcio (CaF2), um envolto em filtro de chumbo de (0,50 ± 0,05) mm e outro sem filtro e um de fluoreto de lítio TLD-100, também sem filtro. Aproveitamos a propriedade termoluminescente desses detectores, qual seja a de emissão de luz em intensidade proporcional à dose de radiação recebida, quando eles são aquecidos. A grandeza final avaliada é o equivalente de dose ambiental H*(10) e direcional H(10,) para fins de monitoração de área e o equivalente de dose pessoal Hp(10) para monitoração individual. Para tanto, estudos foram realizados irradiando os monitores no ar no primeiro caso e na frente de um fantoma de PMMA preenchido com água no segundo caso. Para avaliar o desempenho dos monitores de radiação eles foram submetidos a testes de linearidade da resposta com a dose, dependência angular e dependência energética. Uma análise detalhada dos resultados obtidos mostrou que todos os valores dos equivalentes de dose obtidos em testes de desempenho estão dentro dos limites estabelecidos por normas internacionais, com 95% de nível de confiança. Para o monitor escolhido obtivemos para a razão [H(10)determinado/H(10)nominal ± desvio] no caso de equivalente de dose ambiental e pessoal respectivamente os valores: (1,02 ± 0,11) e (0,97 ± 0,25). Os desvios foram calculados com o método t de student, considerando o intervalo que contém o valor nominal com 95% de probabilidade. / Operational quantities have been implemented to be applied in individual and area routine monitoring against external radiation exposure. This procedure is based on the use of an ideal combination of thermoluminescent detectors inside a monitor: two pellets of CaF2, one covered by a lead filter of (0,50 ± 0,05) mm and another one without filter and one TLD-100 without filter too. The operational quantities studied for area monitoring are the ambient and directional dose equivalent, H*(10) and H(10,), respectively and for individual monitoring, the personal dose equivalent, Hp(10). To evaluate the personal dose equivalent, all the experiments were performed irradiating the monitor on a slab water phantom made of PMMA walls with outer dimensions 30x30x15 cm, (a substitute of ICRU sphere four-element tissue phantom) completely full of water. Area monitors were irradiated in free air without any phantom. In general, an operational quantity H is determined from the basic physical quantity kerma free-in-air by means of conversion coefficients. The blind performance testing of monitors was performed after type testing, including analysis of the linearity of the response with the dose, the angular and energy dependence. The results of these investigations agree with the values recommended by international organisations within 95 % of confidence level. The ratios (H(10)evaluated/H(10)nominal ± deviation) obtained for ambient and personal dose equivalente are respectively (1,02 ± 0,11) and (0,97 ± 0,25), with the monitor above quoted. The error was estimated with the method of t-student, considering 95 % confidence level.

O objetivo principal deste estudo foi analisar, na Gerência de Aceleradores Cíclotron do IPEN, o controle das doses de radiação ionizante e sua distribuição, comparando seus valores com as exigências regulamentares. A análise do controle das taxas de dose por meio do monitoramento de área foi realizada a partir de dados obtidos durante as produções de Flúor-18 no período de janeiro de 2010 a dezembro de 2011, totalizando 1011 medidas em cada ponto monitorado. A análise das doses provenientes de exposições ocupacionais foi realizada por meio de consulta aos históricos de dose individual. Durante os anos de 2007 a 2011 foram analisados os registros individuais das doses efetivas, totalizando 91 registros e de 2009 a 2011 foram analisados os registros de dose equivalente (nas mãos), totalizando 49 registros. Os indivíduos ocupacionalmente expostos envolvidos no estudo foram classificados, de acordo com a tarefa, em três grupos: alvos, radioproteção e operação e manutenção. Os resultados obtidos dos níveis de exposição ocupacional da radiação foram analisados e comparados com os limites estabelecidos pela autoridade regulatória nacional e com as recomendações internacionais. Com base nos resultados registrados do monitoramento de área e das doses recebidas, os procedimentos de radioproteção aplicados na instalação durante o período estudado foram averiguados e sugestões de melhorias foram dadas sob o ponto de vista da proteção radiológica. / The main purpose of this study was to analyze, at the Gerência de Aceleradores Cíclotron (Management of Cyclotron Accelerators) at IPEN, the control of ionizing radiation doses and their distribution by comparing their values with regulatory requirements. The analysis of the dose rate for the area monitoring was carried out from the data obtained during the production of Fluorine-18 from January 2010 to December 2011, totalizing 1011 measurements at each monitored spot. The doses analysis was performed through consultation of the individual dose records. During the years 2007 to 2011 the records of individual effective doses were analyzed, adding up to 91 records; from 2009 to 2011 the records of equivalent dose (hands) were analyzed, totalizing 49 records. The occupationally exposed individuals involved in the study were classified in three groups according to their task: targets, radioprotection and operation and maintenance. The results of occupational exposure levels of radiation were analyzed and compared with values established in national standards and international recommendations. Based on the results of the area monitoring and the doses received and recorded, radiation protection procedures implemented at the facility during the study period were checked and suggestions for improvements were given from the point of view of radiological protection.

The strain on modern electrical power systems has led to an ever-increasing utilization of new information and communication technologies (ICT) to improve their efficiency and reliability. Wide area monitoring and control (WAMC) systems offer many opportunities to improve the real-time situational awareness in the power system. These systems are essen-tially SCADA systems but with continuous streaming of measurement data from the power system. The quality of WAMC systems and the applications running on top of them are heavily, but not exclusively, dependent on the underlying non-functional quality of the ICT systems. From an ICT perspective, the real-time nature of WAMC systems makes them susceptible to variations in the quality of the supporting ICT systems. The non-functional qualities studied as part of this research are performance, interoperability and cyber security. To analyze the performance of WAMC ICT systems, WAMC applications were identified, and their requirements were elicited. Furthermore, simulation models capturing typical utility communication infrastructure architectures were implemented. The simulation studies were carried out to identify and characterize the latency in these systems and its impact on data quality in terms of the data loss. While performance is a major and desirable quality, other non-functional qualities such as interoperability and cyber security have a significant impact on the usefulness of the sys-tem. To analyze these non-functional qualities, an enterprise architecture (EA) based framework for the modeling and analysis of interoperability and cyber security, specialized for WAMC systems, is proposed. The framework also captures the impact of cyber security on the interoperability of WAMC systems. Finally, a prototype WAMC system was imple-mented to allow the validation of the proposed EA based framework. The prototype is based on existing and adopted open-source frameworks and libraries. The research described in this thesis makes several contributions. The work is a systematic approach for the analysis of the non-functional quality of WAMC ICT systems as a basis for establishing the suitability of ICT system architectures to support WAMC applications. This analysis is accomplished by first analyzing the impact of communication architectures for WAMC systems on the latency. Second, the impact of these latencies on the data quali-ty, specifically data currency (end to end delay of the phasor measurements) and data in-completeness (i.e., the percentage of phasor measurements lost in the communication), is analyzed. The research also provides a framework for interoperability and cyber security analysis based on a probabilistic Monte Carlo enterprise architecture method. Additionally, the framework captures the possible impact of cyber security on the interoperability of WAMC data flows. A final result of the research is a test bed where WAMC applications can be deployed and ICT architectures tested in a controlled but realistic environment. / <p>QC 20130218</p>

The strain on modern electrical power system operation has led to an ever increasing utilization of new Information Communication Technology (ICT) systems to enhance the reliability and efficiency of grid operation. Among these proposals, Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)-based Wide-Area Monitoring and Control (WAMC) systems have been recognized as one of the enablers of “Smart Grid”, particularly at the transmission level, due to their capability to improve the real-time situational awareness of the grid. These systems differ from the conventional Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems in that they provide globally synchronized measurements at high resolutions. On the other hand, the WAMC systems also impose several stringent requirements on the underlying ICT systems, including performance, security, and availability, etc. As a result, the functionality of the WAMC applications is heavily, but not exclusively, dependent on the capabilities of the underlying ICT systems. This tight coupling makes it difficult to fully exploit the benefits of the synchrophasor technology without the proper design and configuration of ICT systems to support the WAMC applications. The strain on modern electrical power system operation has led to an ever increasing utilization of new Information Communication Technology (ICT) systems to enhance the reliability and efficiency of grid operation. Among these proposals, Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)-based Wide-Area Monitoring and Control (WAMC) systems have been recognized as one of the enablers of “Smart Grid”, particularly at the transmission level, due to their capability to improve the real-time situational awareness of the grid. These systems differ from the conventional Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems in that they provide globally synchronized measurements at high resolutions. On the other hand, the WAMC systems also impose several stringent requirements on the underlying ICT systems, including performance, security, and availability, etc. As a result, the functionality of the WAMC applications is heavily, but not exclusively, dependent on the capabilities of the underlying ICT systems. This tight coupling makes it difficult to fully exploit the benefits of the synchrophasor technology without the proper design and configuration of ICT systems to support the WAMC applications. In response to the above challenges, this thesis addresses the dependence of WAMC applications on the underlying ICT systems. Specifically, two of the WAMC system data quality attributes, latency and completeness, are examined together with their effects on a typical WAMC application, PMU-based wide-area damping systems. The outcomes of this research include quantified results in the form of PMU communication delays and data frame losses, and probability distributions that can model the PMU communication delays. Moreover, design requirements are determined for the wide-area damping systems, and three different delay-robust designs for this WAMC application are validated based on the above results. Finally, a virtual PMU is developed to perform power system and communication network co-simulations. The results reported by this thesis offer a prospect for better predictions of the performance of the supporting ICT systems in terms of PMU data latency and completeness. These results can be further used to design and optimize the WAMC applications and their underlying ICT systems in an integrated manner. This thesis also contributes a systematic approach to design the wide-area damping system considering the PMU data latency and completeness. Finally, the developed virtual PMU, as part of a co-simulation platform, provides a means to investigate the dependence of WAMC applications on the capabilities of the underlying ICT systems in a cost-efficient manner. / <p>QC 20131015</p>

O objetivo principal deste estudo foi analisar, na Gerência de Aceleradores Cíclotron do IPEN, o controle das doses de radiação ionizante e sua distribuição, comparando seus valores com as exigências regulamentares. A análise do controle das taxas de dose por meio do monitoramento de área foi realizada a partir de dados obtidos durante as produções de Flúor-18 no período de janeiro de 2010 a dezembro de 2011, totalizando 1011 medidas em cada ponto monitorado. A análise das doses provenientes de exposições ocupacionais foi realizada por meio de consulta aos históricos de dose individual. Durante os anos de 2007 a 2011 foram analisados os registros individuais das doses efetivas, totalizando 91 registros e de 2009 a 2011 foram analisados os registros de dose equivalente (nas mãos), totalizando 49 registros. Os indivíduos ocupacionalmente expostos envolvidos no estudo foram classificados, de acordo com a tarefa, em três grupos: alvos, radioproteção e operação e manutenção. Os resultados obtidos dos níveis de exposição ocupacional da radiação foram analisados e comparados com os limites estabelecidos pela autoridade regulatória nacional e com as recomendações internacionais. Com base nos resultados registrados do monitoramento de área e das doses recebidas, os procedimentos de radioproteção aplicados na instalação durante o período estudado foram averiguados e sugestões de melhorias foram dadas sob o ponto de vista da proteção radiológica. / The main purpose of this study was to analyze, at the Gerência de Aceleradores Cíclotron (Management of Cyclotron Accelerators) at IPEN, the control of ionizing radiation doses and their distribution by comparing their values with regulatory requirements. The analysis of the dose rate for the area monitoring was carried out from the data obtained during the production of Fluorine-18 from January 2010 to December 2011, totalizing 1011 measurements at each monitored spot. The doses analysis was performed through consultation of the individual dose records. During the years 2007 to 2011 the records of individual effective doses were analyzed, adding up to 91 records; from 2009 to 2011 the records of equivalent dose (hands) were analyzed, totalizing 49 records. The occupationally exposed individuals involved in the study were classified in three groups according to their task: targets, radioprotection and operation and maintenance. The results of occupational exposure levels of radiation were analyzed and compared with values established in national standards and international recommendations. Based on the results of the area monitoring and the doses received and recorded, radiation protection procedures implemented at the facility during the study period were checked and suggestions for improvements were given from the point of view of radiological protection.

Neste trabalho implementamos as grandezas operacionais no sistema de monitoração de área e individual. Determinamos a combinação ideal dos detectores termoluminescentes para constituírem os monitores de radiação como sendo: dois de fluoreto de cálcio (CaF2), um envolto em filtro de chumbo de (0,50 ± 0,05) mm e outro sem filtro e um de fluoreto de lítio TLD-100, também sem filtro. Aproveitamos a propriedade termoluminescente desses detectores, qual seja a de emissão de luz em intensidade proporcional à dose de radiação recebida, quando eles são aquecidos. A grandeza final avaliada é o equivalente de dose ambiental H*(10) e direcional H(10,) para fins de monitoração de área e o equivalente de dose pessoal Hp(10) para monitoração individual. Para tanto, estudos foram realizados irradiando os monitores no ar no primeiro caso e na frente de um fantoma de PMMA preenchido com água no segundo caso. Para avaliar o desempenho dos monitores de radiação eles foram submetidos a testes de linearidade da resposta com a dose, dependência angular e dependência energética. Uma análise detalhada dos resultados obtidos mostrou que todos os valores dos equivalentes de dose obtidos em testes de desempenho estão dentro dos limites estabelecidos por normas internacionais, com 95% de nível de confiança. Para o monitor escolhido obtivemos para a razão [H(10)determinado/H(10)nominal ± desvio] no caso de equivalente de dose ambiental e pessoal respectivamente os valores: (1,02 ± 0,11) e (0,97 ± 0,25). Os desvios foram calculados com o método t de student, considerando o intervalo que contém o valor nominal com 95% de probabilidade. / Operational quantities have been implemented to be applied in individual and area routine monitoring against external radiation exposure. This procedure is based on the use of an ideal combination of thermoluminescent detectors inside a monitor: two pellets of CaF2, one covered by a lead filter of (0,50 ± 0,05) mm and another one without filter and one TLD-100 without filter too. The operational quantities studied for area monitoring are the ambient and directional dose equivalent, H*(10) and H(10,), respectively and for individual monitoring, the personal dose equivalent, Hp(10). To evaluate the personal dose equivalent, all the experiments were performed irradiating the monitor on a slab water phantom made of PMMA walls with outer dimensions 30x30x15 cm, (a substitute of ICRU sphere four-element tissue phantom) completely full of water. Area monitors were irradiated in free air without any phantom. In general, an operational quantity H is determined from the basic physical quantity kerma free-in-air by means of conversion coefficients. The blind performance testing of monitors was performed after type testing, including analysis of the linearity of the response with the dose, the angular and energy dependence. The results of these investigations agree with the values recommended by international organisations within 95 % of confidence level. The ratios (H(10)evaluated/H(10)nominal ± deviation) obtained for ambient and personal dose equivalente are respectively (1,02 ± 0,11) and (0,97 ± 0,25), with the monitor above quoted. The error was estimated with the method of t-student, considering 95 % confidence level.