Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most common form of genetic variation. We developed a novel multiplexed method for SNP genotyping based on four-color fluorophore tag-microarray minisequencing. This method allows simultaneous genotyping of 80 samples and up to 200 SNPs in any allele combination. In study I we set up the method for a panel of SNPs from genes in the type I interferon system, and applied it in study III. In study II we used the technique to genotype SNPs from the coding region of the mitochondrial genome. A panel of 150 SNPs was genotyped in 265 individuals representing nine different populations. We demonstrated that the multiplexed SNP genotyping method for mitochondrial DNA increases the power of forensic identification in combination with sequencing of the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA. In study III we performed a genetic association study of SNPs in genes related to the type I Interferon system in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE). SLE is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease with a complex etiology. The SNPs were genotyped in DNA samples from Swedish, Finnish, and Icelandic patients with SLE, unaffected family members, and unrelated controls. The analysis identified SNPs in two genes, the tyrosine kinase 2 (TYK2) and interferon regulatory factor 5 (IRF5) genes that are highly associated with SLE with p-values <10-7 for joint linkage and association. Study IV describes the analysis of the TYK2 and IRF5 SNPs in a large Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) sample cohort. We found that SNPs in the IRF5 gene were significantly associated with RA with a p-value = 0.00008. In contrast, we did not detect an association with SNPs in the TYK2 gene. These findings demonstrate that SLE and RA may have a common genetic background in the case of IRF5, while the TYK2 variants appear to be unique for SLE.

Diseases that affect dairy cattle have serious economic and animal welfare implications. The inclusion of immune response (IR) traits in breeding indices has been suggested to improve inherent animal health, and decrease the use of antimicrobials. The objectives of this research were to (1) evaluate cell-mediated (CMIR) and antibody-mediated immune responses (AMIR) on 680 Holstein cows from 58 herds across Canada, (2) estimate genetic parameters of these traits (3) examine the associations with routinely evaluated traits as well as the incidence of mastitis, (4) evaluate the correlation of natural and specific antibody and (5) perform a genome-wide association study (GWAS) to determine genetic markers associated with high or low IR. In collaboration with the Canadian Bovine Mastitis Research Network cows were immunized with both a type 1 and type 2 test antigen to stimulate CMIR and AMIR, respectively. A cutaneous delayed-type hypersensitivity test to the type 1 test antigen was used as an indicator of CMIR, and serum antibody (IgG1 and IgG2) to the type 2 test antigen as an indicator of AMIR. IR phenotypes varied significantly by cow, herd and region in Canada. Heritability estimates were moderate, 0.19 for CMIR and 0.16-0.43 for AMIR depending on time in the immunization protocol and antibody isotype. Beneficial associations between AMIR and some reproductive traits were found. Using estimated breeding values, cows were classified as high, average or low responders. High AMIR cows had significantly lower incidence rates of clinical mastitis compared to average and low cows. No difference was found when cows were classified based on CMIR. Natural antibody was not genetically correlated with specific antibody nor was it associated with mastitis. The GWAS found 198 genetic markers significantly associated with AMIR, with the majority on chromosome 23 where the major histocompatability complex is located. Other significant genes involved in IR include those associated with the complement system, interleukin 17 and tumor necrosis factor. This research confirms the benefit of identifying high IR cows and gives a glimpse of current IR profiles in Canadian Holsteins. This was the first GWAS for IR traits in dairy cattle and suggests it may be possible to include IR traits in genomic selection indices. / This research was financed by grants to B.A. Mallard from National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Alberta Milk, Dairy Farmers of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Prince Edward Island, Novalait Inc., Dairy Farmers of Canada, DairyGen council of Canadian Dairy Network, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Public Health Agency of Canada, Technology PEI Inc., Université de Montréal and University of Prince Edward Island through the Canadian Bovine Mastitis Research Network. Kathleen Adele Thompson Crispi was funded by the Dairy Farmers of Ontario Doctoral Research Assistantship.

Cervical stenotic myelopathy (CSM) is an important musculoskeletal and neurologic disease of the horse. Clinical disease occurs due to malformations of the vertebrae in the neck causing stenosis of the cervical vertebral canal and subsequent spinal cord compression. The disease is multifactorial in nature, therefore a clearer understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis of CSM will allow for improved management and therapeutic practices. This thesis examines issues of equine CSM diagnosis, skeletal tissue pathology, and inherited genetic determinants utilizing advances in biomedical imaging technologies and equine genomics. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data provided a more complete assessment of the cervical column through image acquisition in multiple planes. First, MRI was compared to standing cervical radiographs for detection of stenosis. Using canal area or the cord canal area ratio, MRI more accurately predicted sites of compression in CSM cases. Secondly, articular process skeletal pathology localized on MRI was found to be more frequent and severe in CSM horses compared to controls. In addition, lesions were generalized throughout the cervical column and not limited to the spinal cord compression sites. A subset of lesions identified on MRI was evaluated using micro-CT and histopathology. Osteochondrosis, osseous cyst-like structures, fibrous tissue replacement of bone, and osteosclerosis were observed. These lesions support likely developmental aberrations of vertebral bone and cartilage maturation with secondary biomechanical influences. Bone cyst-like structures are a novel finding in this disease. Finally, the long-standing question of the contribution of genetic determinants to CSM was investigated using a genome wide association study (GWAS). Multiple significant loci were identified supporting the influence of a complex genetic trait in clinical disease. A simple Mendelian trait controlled by one gene is unlikely given the detection of variants across multiple chromosomes. Major contributions from this research include documentation of articular process bone and cartilage pathology in horses with CSM, support for abnormal cervical vertebrae development being an important contributing factor in the etiology and/or pathogenesis of equine CSM, and evidence that multiple genetic loci contribute to the CSM disease phenotype.

The release of the Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip in late 2007 has drawn attention from cattle breeders around the world to develop breeding programs that leverage association of these single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with economically important quantitative trait loci (QTL). In that context this project has come to study applications of the SNP panel in beef cattle. Analysis of linkage disequilibrium (LD) existing in Angus, Charolais, and crossbred animals revealed the pattern of LD within each breed group, as well as the persistence of LD phase between pairs of the breed groups. This is important for genomic selection where SNP are trained in one population and used to predict breeding value for animals in another population. Detection of chromosome regions potentially carrying QTL or causative mutations affecting the phenotypic variation in economically important traits was presented at individual SNP and haplotype levels. There were 269 SNP associated (P<0.001) with birth weight (BWT), weaning weight (WWT), average daily gain (ADG), dry matter intake (DMI), mid-test metabolic weight (MMWT), residual feed intake (RFI). They explained 1.64% - 8.06% of the phenotypic variation in these traits. There were 520 SNP associated (P<0.001) with carcass quality traits, namely hot carcass weight, back fat thickness, ribeye area, marbling scores, lean yield grade by Beef Improvement Federation, steak tenderness, and six rib dissection traits. These SNP explained 1.90 - 5.89% of the phenotypic variance of the traits. Many of the significant SNP were located on chromosome 6. Six haplotypes were found associated (P<0.05) with ADG, DMI, and RFI. In order for genomic selection to happen in beef cattle, higher density SNP panels should be made available at low genotyping cost. However, the cost of genotyping animals for high density SNP chip is still high, thus genotype imputation has come to practice. The last chapter of this thesis compared two approaches presently used in genotype imputation, investigated factors affecting imputation accuracy, as well as the impact of imputation accuracy on genomic estimated breeding value (GEBV). It proved that the highest possible accuracy of GEBV is attainable with sufficiently large groups of reference animals. / Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Ontario Cattlemen’s Association. Ontario Farm Innovation Program. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Growing Forward Program. Agriculture Adaptation Council. Ontario Research and Development Program. MITACS Accelerate. Beef Improvement Opportunities.

The studies in this thesis describe the application of genotyping and allele specific expression analysis to genetic studies. The role of the gene NPC1 in Triglyceride metabolism was explored in mouse models and in humans on the population level in study I. NPC1 was found to affect hepatic triglyceride metabolism, and to be relevant for controlling serum triglyceride levels in mice and potentially in humans. In study II the utility of the HapMap CEU samples was investigated for tagSNP selection in six European populations. The HapMap CEU was found to be representative for tagSNP selection in all populations while allele frequencies differed significantly in the sample from Kuusamo, Finland. In study III the power of Allele specific expression as a tool for the mapping of cis-regulatory variation was compared to standard eQTL analysis, ASE was found to be the more powerful type of analysis for a similar sample size. Finally ASE mapping was applied to regions reported to harbour long non-coding RNAs and associated SNPs were compared to published trait-associations. This revealed strong cis-regulatory SNPs of long non-coding RNAs with reported trait or disease associations.

Après 25 ans de recherche intensive, aucun vaccin ou traitement définitif contre le SIDA n'existe, et les mécanismes moléculaires de pathogenèse de l'infection VIH-1 ne sont pas clairement élucidés. Les avancées technologiques permettent de comparer des sujets malades avec des sujets contrôles sur tout le génome. Il est ainsi possible d’identifier sans a priori des gènes potentiellement impliqués dans le développement de la maladie avec pour conséquence le développement rationnel de nouvelles stratégies diagnostiques ou thérapeutiques. Durant ma thèse, j’ai réalisé deux études d’association ‘génome entier’ dans le SIDA, en comparant les 275 non-progresseurs à long terme ou les 85 progresseurs rapides de la cohorte GRIV avec une cohorte de contrôles séronégatifs. J’ai réalisé une troisième analyse en exploitant les données issues de trois études ‘génome entier’ internationales dont la nôtre (France, Pays-Bas, USA), ciblant plus particulièrement les SNPs de fréquence faible (fréquence de l’allèle mineur, MAF<5%). Ces approches ‘génome entier’ ont réaffirmé le rôle central du HLA dans la progression vers le SIDA, mais aussi dévoilé de nouveaux gènes candidats très pertinents donnant une nouvelle lumière sur les mécanismes moléculaires de la maladie. / After 25 years of intensive research, no vaccine or cure exists against AIDS, and the molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection are not clearly understood. Technological progress has made possible to compare cases versus controls over the whole genome. It is thus possible to identify genes potentially involved in disease development with no a priori, and consequently develop rationally new diagnostic or therapeutic strategies. During my PhD, I have completed two genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in AIDS, comparing 275 long term non-progressors or the 85 rapid progressors from the GRIV cohort with a cohort of seronegative controls. I have also completed a third analysis exploiting data from three international GWAS including ours (France, Netherlands, USA), targeting particularly low frequency SNPs (minor allele frequency, MAF <5%). These GWAS approaches have reaffirmed the central role of HLA for progression towards AIDS, but also revealed new relevant candidate genes, shedding a new light on the molecular mechanisms of disease progression.

As fissuras orofaciais, ou fissuras labiopalatinas, são malformações prevalentes na população mundial, presente em cerca de um a cada 700 nascimentos. Dentro das fissuras orofaciais, um grupo etiologicamente distinto é composto pelas fissuras de lábio com ou sem fissura de palato, que, em 70% dos casos, não estão associadas a nenhuma comorbidade (fissuras de lábio com ou sem palato não sindrômicas, FL/P NS). A etiologia das FL/P NS é complexa, e em muitos casos apresenta herança multifatorial. A contribuição genética para as FL/P NS, embora sabidamente relevante, ainda é pouco conhecida. Ainda, os loci de suscetibilidade consistentemente associados às FL/P NS, não conferem um risco que explique a herdabilidade total da doença. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar, por meio de diferentes estratégias, variantes de risco às FL/P NS. Utilizando sequenciamento de exoma em casos familiais, verificamos que o gene codificante da caderina epitelial, CDH1, contribui importantemente com variantes raras de efeito moderado a alto na etiologia das FL/Ps. Além disso, propusemos que também podem ter relevância etiológica genes envolvidos na via de polaridade planar celular, transição epitélio-mesênquima, adesão celular, regulação de ciclo celular ou de interação com microtúbulos. Por meio de um estudo de associação com correção para estratificação populacional, caracterizamos o intervalo de associação da região 8q24, o principal locus de suscetibilidade às FL/P, e identificamos associação significativa também para a região 20q12. Por fim, combinando o estudo de associação com mapeamento de eQTLs, encontramos pela primeira vez a associação entre marcadores na região 2p13, que regulam MRPL53, em FL/P NS. Em conclusão, este trabalho contribui para o melhor entendimento da relevância de variantes raras, de efeito moderado a alto, e comuns, de efeito pequeno, na etiologia das FL/P NS / Orofacial clefts (or cleft lip/palate) are congenital malformations with high prevalence in population (&sim;1:700 births). Among the orofacial cleft types, an etiologically distinct group is composed by cleft lip with or without cleft palate, which, in 70% of cases, is not accompanied by other malformations (nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate, NSCL/P). NSCL/P presents complex etiology, often with multifactorial inheritance. Although important, the genetic contribution to NSCL/P is still poorly comprehended, and the susceptibility loci that have been associated with NSCL/P do not explain the totality of the disease\'s heritability. In light of this, our aim was to investigate risk variants for NSCL/P by means of different strategies. With exome sequencing for NSCL/P familial cases, we report that the epithelial cadherin-encoding gene contributes with rare, moderate-to-high risk variants to NSCL/P etiology. In addition, we suggest an etiological contribution of genes laying in planar cell polarity pathway, or involved with epithelial-mesenchymal transition, cell adhesion, cell cycle regulation, and interaction with microtubules. Using structured association approach, we narrowed the associated interval of 8q24 region in a Brazilian population, and also validated the association for 20q12. Finally, by combining association analysis with eQTL mapping, we found association of regulatory variants of MRPL53, in 2p13, with NSCL/P. In conclusion, this study contributes with a deeper comprehension of the etiological role of rare and common variants for NSCL/P

La peau est un excellent modèle d’étude du vieillissement général. En plus de facteurs environnementaux, les facteurs génétiques jouent un rôle majeur dans le vieillissement cutané. Dans le cadre de ma thèse, j’ai eu accès à une cohorte exceptionnelle de 502 femmes caucasiennes très bien caractérisées sur le plan cutané, pour effectuer deux études d’association « génome-entier ». La première étude a montré le rôle joué par le système immunitaire, et en particulier le gène HLA‑C, dans la sévérité des lentigines du visage. La seconde a mis en évidence une association entre le gène H2AFY2 et la sévérité de l’affaissement de la paupière supérieure. La recherche de voies de signalisation biologiques associées à différents indicateurs du vieillissement cutané a souligné le rôle de la mélanogénèse et des mécanismes de réparation de l’ADN.Ces résultats ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives dans la compréhension des mécanismes inhérents au vieillissement cutané et général. / The skin is an excellent model to study general ageing. In addition to environmental factors, genetic factors play a key role in skin ageing mechanisms. During my PhD, I have had access to a unique cohort of 502 Caucasian women very-well characterized regarding their facial features to perform two genome-wide association studies. The first one pointed to the role of the immune system, and especially the HLA‑C gene, in the severity of facial lentigines. The second one identified an association between the H2AFY2 gene and the severity of superior eyelid drooping. I also looked for associations between biological pathways and several skin ageing indicators which underlined the role of the melanogenesis and several mechanisms of DNA repair.Overall, these results lead to new insights in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying skin and global ageing.

Fissura labial com ou sem fissura de palato não sindrômica (FL±P NS) é uma doença complexa que afeta 1:700 indivíduos no mundo. A busca das causas genéticas dessa malformação é dificultada pelo padrão multifatorial de herança e pela heterogeneidade genética, sendo que o gene IRF6 e a região 8q24 são os loci de associação mais corroborada. A estratificação populacional é um problema adicional a ser considerado em estudos de caso-controle na população brasileira. No intuito de caracterizar variáveis que possam interferir na busca dos fatores de risco, realizamos em um primeiro estudo uma avaliação epidemiológica de pacientes de cinco localidades do país (Santarém-PA, Barbalha-CE, Fortaleza-CE, Maceió-AL e Rio de Janeiro-RJ) . Este estudo revelou Barbalha como a região onde a genética desempenha papel mais determinante (herdabilidade = 85%; risco de recorrência = 2,2-2,8%); Maceió, por outro lado, foi a região de menor influência genética (herdabilidade = 45%; risco de recorrência = 0,6-0,7%). Ainda, a consangüinidade não mostrou um mecanismo importante para explicar estes resultados. Em um segundo estudo, realizamos a caracterização da ancestralidade da amostra, com o intuito de estabelecermos parâmetros para serem utilizados em futuros estudos de associação na nossa população. Para testarmos as nossas hipóteses realizamos um estudo de caso-controle com os SNPs mais corroborados nos dois loci em outras populações: rs642961 em um enhancer do gene IRF6 e rs987525 na região 8q24. Verificamos que quando realizamos um teste de associação para os SNPs com correção para estrutura populacional obtivemos resultados consistentes com as estimativas de herdabilidade, uma vez que Barbalha foi a única região de associação positiva para os SNPs. Apesar de estes SNPs terem sido estudados em outras populações, este é o primeiro relato de associação destes SNPs na população brasileira. Ainda, o estudo molecular revelou a importância da caracterização da estrutura populacional por meio de marcadores informativos de ancestralidade em estudos de caso-controle na nossa população, uma vez que resultados diferentes puderam ser observados em análise assumindo ausência de estratificação. Este trabalho fornece importantes bases para a identificação de novos genes de predisposição às FL±P NS na população brasileira, pois permite um direcionamento para as populações de maior contribuição genética nas abordagens que virão a ser realizadas. / Nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NS CL±P) is a complex disease with worldwide incidence estimated as 1:700. The multifactorial model of inheritance and the genetic heterogeneity difficult the search for the genetic causes of NS CL±P, and, of all loci, IRF6 gene and 8q24 gene desert are the two most associated. The population stratification constitutes an additional problem to be considered in case-control studies in Brazil. In order to identify the factors that may interfere in the hunting of risk factors, we carried out, in a first moment, an epidemiologic evaluation of patients from five locations in Brazil (Santarém-PA, Barbalha-CE, Fortaleza-CE, Maceió-AL and Rio de Janeiro-RJ). This study put Barbalha as the region where genetic factors play the more determinant role (heritability = 85%; recurrence risk = 2.2-2.8%); Maceió, on the other hand, was the region of less genetic contribution to the disease (heritability = 45%; recurrence risk = 0.6-0.7%). In addition, consanguinity did not appear to influence these results. In a second study, we characterized the sample ancestry, in order to establish parameters for future association studies in our population. To test our hypothesis, we carried out a case-control study with the SNPs which are the most corroborated in other populations: rs642961 (in an IRF6 enhancer), and rs987525 (in 8q24). We verified that, when a structured association test was performed, we obtained results that are consistent with heritability estimates, since Barbalha was the only region with positive association for both SNPs. This was the first time that a positive association for these markers was reported in a Brazilian population. In addition, the molecular analysis evidenced the importance of an individual characterization with ancestry informative markers when performing a case-control study in this population, since different results were obtained from the analyses assuming no stratification and correcting its effect. This study provides important bases for the identification of new susceptibility variants to NS CL±P in Brazilian population, since targeting in the populations of highest genetic contribution to the disease will be possible in the forthcoming studies, increasing the power of the study.

La méthylation de l'ADN permet, via des remodelages de la chromatine et le recrutement de diverses protéines partenaires, de réguler l'expression des gènes. Des défaillances dans ces mécanismes de régulation peuvent modifier la susceptibilité individuelle face à certaines pathologies, notamment cardiovasculaires. Bien que les différents types cellulaires puissent avoir différents profils de méthylation, l'utilisation de l'ADN provenant de cellules sanguines permet de découvrir de nouveaux mécanismes physiopathologiques. Ce projet de thèse porte sur l'intérêt des analyses d'association méthylome entier comme stratégie alternative aux études d'association génome entier ("GWAS " en anglais) pour identifier de nouveaux déterminants moléculaires de biomarqueurs du risque cardiovasculaire. Pour cela, j'avais à ma disposition deux études épidémiologiques rassemblant 573 sujets pour lesquels les niveaux de méthylation de l'ADN issus du sang périphérique ont été mesurés par une puce à ADN de haute densité couvrant plus de 300 000 sites CpG.Le premier travail que j'ai réalisé a consisté en une étude du méthylome sanguin pour identifier des profils de méthylation associés à l'indice de masse corporelle. Cette étude a permis d'identifier des marques de méthylation de l'ADN au sein du gène HIF3A dont les augmentations sont associées à une augmentation de l'indice de masse corporelle (Lancet, 2014. 383(9933):1990-8). Ces résultats suggèrent en outre que des perturbations de la voie métabolique du gène HIF3A pourraient avoir un rôle important dans la réponse biologique à l'augmentation du poids. Dans un second travail (J Lipid Res, 2014. 55(7):1189-1191), j'ai montré que la variabilité inter individuelle des niveaux de méthylation sanguin du gène CPT1A était associée à la variabilité des taux lipidiques plasmatiques. Ce travail démontre qu'il est possible de détecter à partir d'échantillons sanguins des marques de méthylation de l'ADN qui pourraient être le reflet de mécanismes épigénétiques plus spécifiques de certains types cellulaires ou de certains tissus. Le gène CPT1A est par exemple principalement exprimé dans le foie.Au cours de mon travail de thèse, j'ai également étudié l'influence de la variabilité génétique sur les niveaux de méthylation de l'ADN sanguin (Am J Hum Genet, 2015. 96(4):532-42, Nat Commun, 2015. 6:6326). Cette étude a permis d'identifier près de 3 milles gènes dont les niveaux de méthylation sont associés à la présence de polymorphismes génétiques, localisés soit au sein de ces mêmes gènes (c.-à-d. effet cis) soit à une très grande distance (plus d'une mégabase voire sur un autre chromosome) (c.-à-d. effet trans). Ces résultats ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives pour mieux appréhender la régulation transcriptionnelle de diverses voies métaboliques. / DNA methylation regulates gene expression by chromatin reshaping and the recruitment of various partner proteins. Dysregulation in these regulatory mechanisms can influence the individual susceptibility to some pathologies, including cardiovascular disorders. Although different cell types can have different methylation patterns, the use of DNA from blood cells has recently been proposed as an interesting tool to discover new epigenetic related pathophysiological mechanisms. This PhD project focuses on the interests of the methylome-wide association analyses as an alternative strategy to the fashion genome-wide association studies ("GWAS ") approach to identify new molecular determinants of cardiovascular risk biomarkers. For my project, I had access to two epidemiological studies collecting together 573 subjects in which DNA methylation levels from peripheral blood cells were measured by a high density DNA microarray that covers more than 300 000 CpG sites.The first work I conducted consisted in a study of blood methylome to identify methylation profiles associated with body mass index. This study led to the identification of DNA methylation marks at the HIF3A gene whose increases are associated with an increase in body mass index (Lancet, 2014. 383(9933):1990-8). These results suggest that a disruption of the metabolic pathway HIF3A gene could have an important role in the biological response to the increase of the weight. In a second work (J Lipid Res, 2014. 55(7):1189-1191), I showed that the inter-individual variability in CPT1A methylation levels in blood were associated with variability of plasma lipid levels. This work demonstrates that it is possible to detect DNA methylation marks from blood samples that could reflect epigenetic mechanisms that occur primarily in specific cells or tissues. The CPT1A gene is for example mainly expressed in the liver.During my PhD, I also studied the influence of the genetic variability on the methylation levels from blood DNA (Am J Hum Genet, 2015. 96(4):532-42, Nat Commun, 2015. 6:6326). This work has identified nearly 3000 genes whose methylation levels are associated with the presence of genetic polymorphisms, located either within these same genes (ie cis effect) or at a very large distance (more than one megabase or to another chromosome) (ie trans effect). These results open new perspectives to better understand the transcriptional regulation of various metabolic pathways.