Background: Cross-sectional and experimental research has shown that female smokers more frequently report using cigarettes to control negative affect, manage dietary restraint, and suppress body image dissatisfaction. However, there has been little research to identify cognitive mechanisms that may underlie these effects. Cross-stimulus attentional bias is one such mechanism. Aims and Hypotheses: We hypothesized that, when compared to neutral stimuli, in-vivo appetitive stimuli would enhance motivation to obtain a particular substance. More specifically, in-vivo smoking stimuli would increase attentional bias to smoking-related pictorial cues, whereas in-vivo food stimuli would increase attention to smoking-related and food-related pictorial cues. We also hypothesized that environmental tobacco smoke exposure history, negative affect, dietary restraint, body image dissatisfaction, and perceived appetite suppression of smoking would influence these attentional biases, such that higher levels of these characteristics would produce greater attentional biases. Method: Thirty-five female smokers were exposed to visual stimuli containing two independent pictorial cues: smoking/neutral, smoking/food, neutral/food, or neutral/neutral. Twenty images were presented in 3 counter-balanced, within-subjects sets differentiated by smoking (cigarette pack), food (snack) and neutral (jewelry) in-vivo stimuli. Attentional bias was measured using eye-tracking technology. Dietary restraint, body image dissatisfaction, negative affect, and environmental tobacco smoke exposure were assessed with self-report measures before the manipulations. Results: Effects counter to the hypotheses were observed, as in-vivo cigarettes and snack foods did not cause participants to differentially attend to pictorial smoking or food stimuli. Initial and maintained attention to smoking pictorial cues was greater than attention to food and neutral cues only when participants were administered a non-appetitive in-vivo stimulus. None of the theoretically hypothesized personality characteristics served as predictors or moderators of attentional bias. Discussion: Findings with the neutral in-vivo stimulus replicate and extend previous research identifying attentional bias for smoking cues among smokers. Results also enhance understanding of how attentional bias may change when smokers encounter other types of appetitive stimuli. These findings encourage further theoretical and clinical exploration of how the relationship between motivation and attentional bias can be conceptualized and translated from the laboratory to the natural environment.

Two age groups of infants were tested for their ability to learn an AAB or ABA repetition generalization in sequences of musical chords. The 4-month-olds, but not the 7.5-month-olds, successfully learned the generalization. Another group of 7.5-month-old infants successfully learned a generalization across melodies that all ended on a particular scale degree, even though the key of the melodies was varied. A survey of a musical corpus of children's songs reveals that AAB and ABA patterns do not occur more frequently than chance, while phrases frequently end on particular scale degrees. Together, these findings suggest that infants learn to constrain the set of generalizations they consider in order to favor those that rely upon features of the input that have proved reliable in their previous experience, specifically experience with a particular input domain. This raises the possibility that experience may play a significant role in parsing infants' environments into domains.

Research suggests that, during stress, resilient individuals use positive emotion regulation strategies and experience a greater number of positive emotions than those who are less resilient. Therefore, differences could be expected in attentional biases towards emotional stimuli based on resilience. The current study investigated attentional biases towards neutral, negative and positive images in response to varying levels of resilence and mood induction conditions (neutral, negative and positive). Sixty participants viewed a series of pre and post-mood induction slides in order to measure attentional biases to emotional stimuli. The study provided evidence for the presence of trait and state congruent attentional biases. More resilient individuals demonstrated an initial bias towards positive stimuli and once emotion was aroused, the bias was away from negative stimuli. Additionally, mood congruent attentional biases were observed for participants induced into positive and negative mood states. Implications as they apply to research and clinical practice are discussed.

Research shows that children often confuse facial expressions of fear with surprise and disgust with anger. According to the perceptual-attentional limitations hypothesis, facial expressions are confused because they share action units (Camras, 1980; Wiggers, 1982). Experiment 1 tested this hypothesis for the confusion between fear and surprise and Experiment 2 for the confusion between disgust and anger. Eye movements were monitored in both experiments. In experiment 1, the results showed that children were more accurate when two distinctive action units were presented than when the brow lowerer was the only distinctive action unit differentiating between fear and surprise. Furthermore, the results showed that participants spent more time fixating on the mouth than the eyebrows. They made more saccades when the only distinctive cue was in the eyebrows. In experiment 2, participants identified the emotion as anger when the mouth was open, and disgust when the mouth was closed, spending more time on the mouth when the mouth was open. These findings suggest that facial expressions are confused, not only because of the amount of visual similarities they share, but also because children do not allocate their attention to facial regions equally; they tend to focus on the mouth.

The ability to navigate with limited vision is a skill that is often employed in our daily lives. Navigating without vision to a remembered target has previously been studied. However, not much is known about the attention required to perform blind navigation. We examined the effect of aging and presence of obstacles on the attentional demands of blind navigation. We evaluated reaction time, navigation errors and average walking speed in an 8 meter walking path, with or without obstacles, in the absence of vision. Results showed that older participants had increased reaction time and increased linear distance travelled as opposed to young participants, that obstacles increased reaction time and decreased average walking speed in all participants, and that emitting the reaction time stimulus early in the trial increased the linear distance travelled. Interpretation of the results suggests that aging and presence of obstacles augments the attentional demands of blind navigation.

This study investigated the effects of music choice on the ratings of attentional focus, affective valence, perceived exertion, and enjoyment during and after self-paced treadmill exercise of varied intensities. Thirty-four college-aged, healthy, active males and females volunteered to participate in the study. Participants completed 6 visits to the laboratory: the first visit was a medical screening to ensure safety of the participants. For the second visit, participants completed a maximal treadmill exercise test. On the third visit, participants completed the Brunel Music Rating Inventory-2 to determine their preferred and non-preferred music genres, and to self-select the low, moderate and high intensity exercise speeds that would be used in the experimental trials. During the last three visits, participants completed each of the three (preferred, non-preferred, no music) randomized and counterbalanced experimental trials. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale and the Feeling Scale were used to measure baseline and post-exercise ratings of enjoyment and affective valence. During exercise, the single-item Attentional Focus Scale, Feeling Scale, Borg 6-20, and Exercise Enjoyment Scale were used to measure attentional focus, affective valence, perceived exertion, and enjoyment, respectively. Results revealed a main effect for condition for affective valence and enjoyment (p < 0.001 for both interactions). A main effect was also found for intensity for attentional focus (p = 0.002) and perceived exertion (p < 0.001). Lastly, there was a main effect for activity revealed for affective valence (p = 0.047) and enjoyment (p = 0.012). Moreover, tests of between and within subjects factors revealed an interaction effect for condition by intensity for affective valence (p = 0.019) and for condition by intensity by activity for perceived exertion (p = 0.005). There was a general trend for thoughts to be more associative as intensity increased in both groups. In addition, there was a general trend for thoughts to be more dissociative during the preferred music condition compared to the non-preferred and no music trial. However, these differences were only found to be significant in the active group. Furthermore, there was a general trend in the active group for affective valence to be more positive regardless of exercise intensity or music condition when compared to the inactive group. Both groups showed the highest ratings of affective valence during the preferred music condition, followed by the non-preferred and no music condition. In-task enjoyment ratings were highest during the preferred music condition when compared to the non-preferred and no music condition regardless of exercise intensity or activity status. The results did not reveal significant differences for ratings of exertion across music conditions, which does not support previous findings. In conclusion, the perceptual responses in this study, which represent affective valence, attentional focus, and enjoyment, were generally more favorable during the preferred music condition and in the active participants. These results support previous findings to suggest exercising while listening to preferred music may lead to an increase in physical activity adherence.

A marcha humana, ou locomoção bípede, pode ser definida como sendo umprocesso contínuo de perda e recuperação o equilíbrio a partir da mudança de posição. Durante a marcha normal, a ativação da musculatura da coluna vertebral e acelerações do tronco resultam em ciclos de cargas aplicadas à coluna. O aumento da velocidade de caminhada aumenta a amplitude de movimento da coluna lombar e os níveis de ativação da musculatura ao redor do tronco. A coordenação postural automática alterada associada com lombalgia pode ser resultado de uma variedade de fatores que vão desde a estratégia de movimento escolhida até a diminuição da força exercida sobre a superfície de apoio, passando por mudanças nos níveis de contração muscular por medo do movimento e/ou dor. O foco atencional do indivíduo, quando dirigido a algum fator externo pode alterar a sua percepção da dor e diminuir as alterações em seus padrões de movimento na marcha. Estudos anteriores mostram que a força de reação do solo apresentou alterações significativas entre grupos de pessoas com e sem dor lombar crônica. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a possível influência do foco atencional no equilíbrio dinâmico de pessoas com dor lombar crônica bem como buscar, na marcha de pessoas com dor lombar crônica clinicamente comprovada, diferentes padrões de movimentos sob diferentes focos atencionais. Além disso, pretendeu-se descrever os efeitos dos diferentes focos atencionais sobre o comportamento das variáveis analisadas na marcha em sujeitos com e sem dor lombar crônica. Fizeram parte do grupo analisado 22 sujeitos que foram orientados, primeiramente, a executar três caminhadas que consistam em, ao menos, três ciclos completos da marcha na velocidade preferida, em linha reta, ao longo da pista de caminhada. Diferentes situações de condução do foco atencional foram utilizadas ao longo das caminhadas que se seguiram. A obtenção dos parâmetros cinemáticos angulares tridimensionais da marcha foi executada através de um sistema de análise de movimentos (Vicon Motion Systems) e os dados cinéticos foram obtidos utilizando-se duas plataformas de força modelo OR6-2000, (Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc.,Watertown, MA, EUA). Todos os dados foram tabulados em planilhas eletrônicas do Microsoft Excel 2003 (Microsoft Corp., EUA). A análise estatística foi realizada no software SPSS 13.0, por meio de Análises de Variância entre as diferentes situações de condução do foco atencional e as variáveis analisadas, com nível de significância de 5%. A ANOVA entre as diferentes situações de condução do foco atencional e as variáveis analisadas não mostrou diferenças significativas entre cada tarefa executada simultaneamente à marcha dos indivíduos (p> 0,9). Conclui-se, a partir dos resultados encontrados, que as diferentes situações de condução do foco atencional utilizadas nesse estudo, apesar de referendadas pela bibliografia utilizada como base teórica, não podem ser usadas de maneira consistente como forma de diminuir os efeitos da dor lombar crônica sobre o comportamento das variáveis analisadas na marcha dos indivíduos avaliados nesse estudo. / The human gait, or bipedal locomotion, can be defined as the continuous process of losing and regaining balance from the change of a geographic location to another. During normal operation, the activation of the muscles of the spine and trunk accelerations result in load cycles applied to the column and increased walking speed increases the range of motion of the lumbar spine and the activation levels of the muscles around the trunk. Changes in the automatic postural coordination associated with low back pain may result from a variety of factors ranging from the motion strategy chosen to decrease the force exerted on the support surface , through changes in levels of muscular contraction for fear of movement and or pain. The attentional focus of the individual, when directed at some external factor, can change your perception of pain and decrease the changes in their patterns of gait movement. Previous studies show that the ground reaction force significantly changed between groups of people with and without chronic low back pain. The present study aimed to analyze the possible influence of attentional focus on dynamic balance of people with chronic low back pain and seek, in the gait of people with chronic low back pain clinically proven, different movement patterns under different attentional foci. In addition, we intend to describe the effects of different attentional focus on the behavior of the variables in gait in subjects with and without chronic low back pain. Formed the group examined 22 subjects who were asked, first, to run three walks consisting of at least three complete cycles of motion in preferred speed, straight along the hiking trail. Different leading situations of attentional focus were used along the walks that followed. The attainment of the three-dimensional angular kinematic parameters of gait was performed using a motion analysis system ( Vicon Motion Systems) and kinetic data were obtained using two force platforms model OR6 - 2000 ( Advanced Mechanical Technology , Inc. Watertown , MA , USA ) . All data were tabulated in spreadsheets Microsoft Excel 2003 ( Microsoft Corp . , USA ) . Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS 13.0, using analysis of variance between the different leading situations of the attentional focus and the other variables, with a significance level of 5 %. The ANOVA between different leading situations of the attentional focus and the other variables showed no significant differences between each task performed simultaneously with the motion of individuals (p > 0.9). It is concluded from the results that the different leading situations of the focus used in this study, although ratified by the bibliography used as a theoretical basis, can’t be used consistently in order to diminish the effects of chronic low back pain about the behavior of the variables in the gait of the subjects in this study.

The quiet eye (QE) - the final fixation or tracking gaze on a specific location that has an onset prior to the start of a final, critical movement (Vickers, 2007) - has emerged as a key predictor of proficient performance in targeting and interceptive tasks over the last 20 years. Since Vickers’ seminal study in golf putting, the QE has been examined in over 28 different motor tasks, with a longer QE duration often referred to as a characteristic of superior performance and a measure of optimal visuo-motor control. However, the underpinnings of QE are not fully understood, with many researchers advocating the need to better identify and understand the mechanisms that underlie the QE (Williams, 2016; Gonzalez et al., 2015). Consequently, the overriding goal of this thesis was to examine the function of the QE duration, what it represents and how it exerts an influence, by exploring the attentional underpinnings of the QE and the prominent cognitive mechanism of response programming. In study 1 (chapter 4), the manipulation of different parameters of golf putting and the examination of different response programming functions (pre-programming vs online control) during the QE enabled me to build on previous explorations of the response programming function by investigating QE’s response to specific iterations of increased task demands. Experienced golfers revealed that longer QE durations were found for more complex iterations of the task and more sensitive analyses of the QE proportions suggest that the early QE (prior to movement initiation) is closely related to force production and impact quality. While the increases in QE were not functional in terms of supporting improved performance, the longer QE durations may have had a positive, insulating effect. In study 2 (chapter 5), a re-examination of Vickers’ seminal work in golf putting was performed, taking into account an error recovery perspective. This 3 explored the influence of trial-to-trial dependence on the functionality of the QE duration and the possible compensatory mechanism that assists in the re-parameterisation of putting mechanics following an unsuccessful trial. The results reveal that experienced golfers had consistently longer QE durations than novices but there was no difference in QE between randomly chosen hits and misses. However, QE durations were significantly longer on hits following a miss, reflecting a potential error recovery mechanism. Importantly, QE durations were significantly lower on misses following a miss, suggesting that motivation moderates the adoption of a compensatory longer QE strategy. These findings indicate that the QE is influenced by the allocation of attentional effort. To explore this notion further, in study 3 (chapter 6), two experiments were undertaken. Experiment 1 examined the QE’s response to attentional effort that is activated via goal motivation and experiment 2 examined the effect of disrupting the allocation of attentional effort on the QE using a dual-task paradigm. The early proportion of the QE was sensitive to motivation, indicating that the QE is not purely determined by the demands of the task and golfers have the ability to apply attentional effort, and therefore QE, strategically (exp. 1). The results also support the assumption that QE reflects overt attentional control but question the sensitivity of QE to detect movements in the locus of attentional effort that does not activate shifts in gaze (covert attention) (exp. 2). The results in this thesis conclude that, while significant contributions to understanding what the QE represents and how it may exert its influence are made, there still remains unanswered questions and tensions that require exploration.

Emotion Regulation describes the ability to influence the experience and expression of affect. Adaptive emotion regulation contributes to healthy development, social competence and academic success (Kochanska, Murray & Harlan, 2000). This study investigated the behavioural strategies for emotion regulation, emotion expression, regulatory styles and classroom behaviour in middle childhood. One hundred and twenty-eight children were recruited from five UK public and private primary schools. From within their school setting, participant sensitivity to emotion-eliciting events was recorded using ambulatory skin conductance technology whilst age-group paired children performed two LEGO construction tasks. Observed behaviours were video-recorded and coded to establish frequencies of distinct regulatory behaviours. These were compared to self-reports of emotion regulation strategies and teacher-reports of classroom behaviour. Iterative partitioning cluster analysis methods were used to identify four regulatory profiles: 1) the ‘Adaptive’ cluster: employed high levels of positive problem solving and reappraisal strategies and frequently expressed both positive and negative emotions; 2) the ‘Maladaptive’ cluster: used more negative regulation (avoidant or obstructive strategies), expressed more negative emotion and had more social and behavioural problems in class; 3) the ‘Reactive’ cluster showed high levels of electrodermal activity, expressed little emotion and were reported as inattentive/hyperactive in class; and 4) the ‘Distracted’ cluster demonstrated high levels of behavioural and cognitive distraction. These results indicate four meaningful profiles that could support the identification of vulnerable individuals for positive school-based intervention and support.

To explore the application of a cognitive test useful in screening of Exhaustion Disorder (ED), this study aimed to develop a Modified Stroop Task for ED. Participants’ scores on measures of burnout, anxiety, depression and stress were compared with performance on the task. The sample consisted of 56 participants (M=25.3 years), 30 women and 22 males, with the majority enrolled in fulltime higher education. The task consisted of five blocks with 100 stimuli in each block. The task was administered on a computer; upon completion of the task participants completed questionnaires measuring levels of burnout, anxiety and depression, as well as perceived stress. Raw scores on the task were calculated using a format comprised of both response times and number of errors. Data were analysed by comparing mean scores on the Stroop blocks using one-way repeated measures ANOVA. Additionally, median splits were undertaken on the scores on the questionnaires to enable between group comparisons using MANOVAs. The results showed no significant differences between high and low scores on the questionnaires and performance on the task. A Stroop interference effect was observed and there was a tendency that high exhausted participants performed worse than less exhausted participants. In conclusion the Modified Stroop Task offers some promise, although as of yet it cannot be assumed to be an accurate modification of an Emotional Stroop Task, due to limitations regarding the method; preliminary findings may serve as a pilot test for future research.