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The effects of long school breaks, such as summer vacation, on students' achievement has been an area of interest among educators and researchers for many years (e.g. Austin, Rogers & Walbesser, 1972; Ballinger, 1987, 1988; Borman, Benson & Overman, 2005; White, 1906). Research specific to children and youth with disabilities and the level of regression over summer months, however, is sparse. On the whole, both researchers and special educators have agreed that students with more severe disabilities tend to regress more than students with mild disabilities (Cornelius & Semmel, 1982; Edgar, Spence & Kenowitz, 1977; Shaw, 1982). These challenges can make extended breaks from school particularly detrimental for these children. A group of students that may be especially affected by a long break in schooling are children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). These children often have slower rates of skill acquisition and more difficulties with maintenance/generalization of skills across time (Arnold- Saritepe, 2009). The current study explored the extent to which students with ASD maintained cognitive, behavioral and social skills over the summer vacation months with differing levels of summer programming. Additionally, this study examined whether students of varying functioning levels differed in their maintenance of skills during the summer. A pre-post quasi-experimental design was utilized in which the May assessments were treated as baseline data and September assessments for the following academic year were treated as outcome data. Participants included 139 students aged 5-9 years with an ASD diagnosis given by their school district. Three different groups of Extended School Year support were compared, including students who received no ESY support, students who received standard ESY support from their school district, and students who received ESY support along with individualized programming. Overall, students maintained skills from pre- to post-test in most key areas. When group comparisons were made between children who attended ESY (ESY group and ESY with individualized support group) and those who did not receive ESY programming few differences were found. While students who received the most intensive level of ESY support were found to decrease significantly in the presentation of hyperactivity and noncompliance, ESY was generally effective in maintaining skills over the summer break. / School Psychology

Mentalistic inference, the process of deducing others’ mental states from behaviour, is a key element of social interactions, especially when challenges arise. Just by observing an action or listening to a verbal description of it, adults and infants are able to make robust and rapid inferences about an agent’s intentions, desires, and beliefs. This thesis considers perspectives from Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) and large language models, specifically GPT models. Individuals with ASDs struggle to read intentions from movements, but the mechanisms underlying these difficulties remain unknown. In a set of experiments, we employed combined motion tracking, psychophysics, and computational analyses to examine intention reading in ASDs with single-trial resolution. Single-trial analyses revealed that challenges in intention reading arise from both differences in kinematics between typically developing individuals and those with ASD, and a diminished sensitivity in reading intentions to variations in movement kinematics. This aligns with the idea that internal readout models are tuned to specific action kinematics, supporting the role of sensorimotor processes in shaping cognitive understanding and emphasizing motor resonance, a key aspect of embodied cognition. Targeted trainings may enhance and improve this ability. In a second set of experiments, we compared Theory of Mind, a core feature of mentalistic inference, in GPT models and a large sample of human participants. We found that GPT models exhibited human-level abilities in detecting indirect requests, false beliefs, and misdirection, but failed on faux pas. Rigorous hypothesis testing enabled us to show that this failure was apparent and was linked to a cautious approach in drawing conclusions rather than from an inference deficit. Collectively, the results presented in this thesis suggest that the convergence of insights from clinical research and advancements in technology is essential for fostering a more inclusive understanding of mentalistic inferences.

The current literature reports that oral language development is not a realistic goal for autistic cochlear implant users (ACI). This is curious, due to the general success of cochlear implants and the fact that many autistic individuals develop strong spoken language skills. Therefore, this study aimed to examine clinician and caregiver insights into spoken language development in the ACI population with the aim of elucidating the factors that influence the poor outcomes reported in the literature. We predicted that cochlear implant function would not be the limiting factor in ACI language development, but that device use and sensory atypicalities might have significant impacts. Participants were two speech-language pathologists (SLPs), six audiologists (AuDs), and one dually certified SLP/AuD. Additionally, six mothers and their ACI children participated in the study. All participants, excepting one ACI parent, took a survey and then participated in a 30–60-minute interview about their experience either caring for or working with ACIs and their insights into their language development. We also collected language samples in ACI participants. Quantitative analysis included computing descriptive and inferential statistics, where appropriate, concerning language abilities, sensory processing, anxiety, and survey responses regarding factors associated with cochlear implant (CI) use. We also engaged in qualitative thematic analysis of caregiver and clinician interviews. Quantitative and qualitative results were then integrated to triangulate findings. In important ways, our results are inconsistent with current literature concerning ACIs. For instance, caregiver and clinician statements, as well as quantitative results suggested that it was very possible for ACIs to develop spoken language, when given the right conditions. Qualitative themes that shed light on the factors important to positive language-related outcomes in ACIs included: a) finding (and advocating for) access to care; b) sensory processing difficulties; c) differentiating between autism and hearing loss, and the spectra of both conditions. One specific and novel finding showed that sensory profiles—especially sensory seeking versus sensory averse—may have a significant impact on a child’s oral language development following cochlear implantation and should be considered when counseling families on possible outcomes. These findings provide new insight into and concrete future directions for supporting the ACI population.