Citizenship and Statelessness as a topic in relations of the Baltic and Russia

Esse trabalho se ocupa do processo de construção dos Estados letão e estoniano após o fim da URSS, tendo como pano de fundo a exclusão da minoria russa residente nesses países. O objetivo da presente dissertação é compreender as razões para a existência de pessoas em um limbo social, político e jurídico, definidas como “não-cidadãs” no Báltico. Sugere-se que essa situação decorre da contradição inerente ao processo de independência de Letônia e Estônia no pós-Guerra Fria: por um lado, marcado por características próprias da constituição do Estado moderno excludente e, por outro, permeado pelas condicionalidades para associação às instituições europeias. A partir de uma perspectiva teórica pós-estruturalista, entende-se a construção dos Estados como uma prática performática resultante de relações de poder. No caso em tela, essas relações podem ser identificadas em nível “interno” e “externo”. Internamente, demonstra-se que a construção dos Estados letão e estoniano ocorreu por meio do estabelecimento de leis de cidadania excludentes contra a minoria russa, alimentada por um cenário político de legitimação das elites nacionais no poder. Em nível “externo”, a adequação dessa construção estatal excludente foi modificada pelos critérios para adesão às instituições europeias. Porém, paradoxalmente, essa pressão externa não foi suficiente para que as minorias russas adquirissem os direitos defendidos pelas instituições europeias, exatamente em razão de a própria identidade europeia ser construída a partir da oposição à Rússia. Por isso, o lugar dos “não-cidadãos” na construção estatal do Báltico é a fronteira moral entre o “interno” e o “externo”, o nacional e o pós-nacional. / This study deals with the construction process of the modern Latvian and Estonian states after the end of the USSR, using as a backdrop the exclusion of the Russian minority residing in these countries. This dissertation’s aim is to understand the reasons for the existence of people in a social, political and legal limbo, defined as "non-citizens" in the Baltic countries. It is suggested that this situation arises from the inherent contradiction in Latvia and Estonia’s independence process in the post-Cold War: on the one hand, marked by the characteristics constitution of the modern exclusionary State, and, on the other hand, permeated by membership conditionalities of European institutions. From a post-structuralist theoretical perspective, this study understands the construction of states as a performative practice resulting from power relations. In this case, these relationships can be identified internally and externally. Internally, it is demonstrated that Latvian and Estonian states’ construction occurred through the exclusionary citizenship laws establishment against the Russian minority, fueled by a political scenario of legitimizing the national elites in power. At the external level, the adequacy of this exclusionary state construction was modified by the criteria for membership of the European institutions. However, paradoxically, this external pressure was not enough for the Russian minorities to acquire the rights defended by the European institutions, precisely because the European identity itself was built from the opposition to Russia. Therefore, the place of the "non-citizens" in the construction of the Baltic States is the moral boundary between the internal and the external, the national and post-national.

This research work is driven by a desire to improve status quo in the area of New Zealand’s political, business and person-to-person relations with the post-Soviet Baltic Republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (the Baltics or the Baltic States), which by now represent an integral part of the European Union (EU). The example of Estonia will be tested as a possible ‘gateway’ for New Zealand trying to undertake its most recent endeavours towards discovering the Baltic region. The dissertation’s response variable can be outlined as ‘New Zealand multi-dimensional interactions with the post-Soviet Baltic Republics, particularly with the Republic of Estonia’. At the same time, the descriptive nature of the dependent variable is planned to be expanded with the help of the manipulated variable that will lead this research work. The latter variable will be formulated as ‘Estonia, a democratic, transparent, free-market state, can be chosen as a ‘gateway’ for New Zealand politics, business circles and the public in their endeavours to succeed in the post-Soviet Baltic region of the EU’. Such an approach will give a chance to scrutinise the studied issues comprehensively, from several angles (such as ‘theoretical’, ‘operational’ and ‘structural’), and by answering the following three research questions: is it necessary for New Zealand to promote its interests and values in the region of the Baltic States; does an idea to choose one of the three Baltic States as a ‘hub’ for promoting New Zealand interests and values in the Baltic region of the EU have a perspective; and can Estonia be considered/recommended to become such a ‘hub’? This dissertation is among the first attempts to address a deficit of scholarship studying New Zealand relations with the post-Soviet Baltic region. Its findings could be used by both New Zealand and the Baltics’ decision-makers in the field of international relations.

Esse trabalho se ocupa do processo de construção dos Estados letão e estoniano após o fim da URSS, tendo como pano de fundo a exclusão da minoria russa residente nesses países. O objetivo da presente dissertação é compreender as razões para a existência de pessoas em um limbo social, político e jurídico, definidas como “não-cidadãs” no Báltico. Sugere-se que essa situação decorre da contradição inerente ao processo de independência de Letônia e Estônia no pós-Guerra Fria: por um lado, marcado por características próprias da constituição do Estado moderno excludente e, por outro, permeado pelas condicionalidades para associação às instituições europeias. A partir de uma perspectiva teórica pós-estruturalista, entende-se a construção dos Estados como uma prática performática resultante de relações de poder. No caso em tela, essas relações podem ser identificadas em nível “interno” e “externo”. Internamente, demonstra-se que a construção dos Estados letão e estoniano ocorreu por meio do estabelecimento de leis de cidadania excludentes contra a minoria russa, alimentada por um cenário político de legitimação das elites nacionais no poder. Em nível “externo”, a adequação dessa construção estatal excludente foi modificada pelos critérios para adesão às instituições europeias. Porém, paradoxalmente, essa pressão externa não foi suficiente para que as minorias russas adquirissem os direitos defendidos pelas instituições europeias, exatamente em razão de a própria identidade europeia ser construída a partir da oposição à Rússia. Por isso, o lugar dos “não-cidadãos” na construção estatal do Báltico é a fronteira moral entre o “interno” e o “externo”, o nacional e o pós-nacional. / This study deals with the construction process of the modern Latvian and Estonian states after the end of the USSR, using as a backdrop the exclusion of the Russian minority residing in these countries. This dissertation’s aim is to understand the reasons for the existence of people in a social, political and legal limbo, defined as "non-citizens" in the Baltic countries. It is suggested that this situation arises from the inherent contradiction in Latvia and Estonia’s independence process in the post-Cold War: on the one hand, marked by the characteristics constitution of the modern exclusionary State, and, on the other hand, permeated by membership conditionalities of European institutions. From a post-structuralist theoretical perspective, this study understands the construction of states as a performative practice resulting from power relations. In this case, these relationships can be identified internally and externally. Internally, it is demonstrated that Latvian and Estonian states’ construction occurred through the exclusionary citizenship laws establishment against the Russian minority, fueled by a political scenario of legitimizing the national elites in power. At the external level, the adequacy of this exclusionary state construction was modified by the criteria for membership of the European institutions. However, paradoxically, this external pressure was not enough for the Russian minorities to acquire the rights defended by the European institutions, precisely because the European identity itself was built from the opposition to Russia. Therefore, the place of the "non-citizens" in the construction of the Baltic States is the moral boundary between the internal and the external, the national and post-national.

Esse trabalho se ocupa do processo de construção dos Estados letão e estoniano após o fim da URSS, tendo como pano de fundo a exclusão da minoria russa residente nesses países. O objetivo da presente dissertação é compreender as razões para a existência de pessoas em um limbo social, político e jurídico, definidas como “não-cidadãs” no Báltico. Sugere-se que essa situação decorre da contradição inerente ao processo de independência de Letônia e Estônia no pós-Guerra Fria: por um lado, marcado por características próprias da constituição do Estado moderno excludente e, por outro, permeado pelas condicionalidades para associação às instituições europeias. A partir de uma perspectiva teórica pós-estruturalista, entende-se a construção dos Estados como uma prática performática resultante de relações de poder. No caso em tela, essas relações podem ser identificadas em nível “interno” e “externo”. Internamente, demonstra-se que a construção dos Estados letão e estoniano ocorreu por meio do estabelecimento de leis de cidadania excludentes contra a minoria russa, alimentada por um cenário político de legitimação das elites nacionais no poder. Em nível “externo”, a adequação dessa construção estatal excludente foi modificada pelos critérios para adesão às instituições europeias. Porém, paradoxalmente, essa pressão externa não foi suficiente para que as minorias russas adquirissem os direitos defendidos pelas instituições europeias, exatamente em razão de a própria identidade europeia ser construída a partir da oposição à Rússia. Por isso, o lugar dos “não-cidadãos” na construção estatal do Báltico é a fronteira moral entre o “interno” e o “externo”, o nacional e o pós-nacional. / This study deals with the construction process of the modern Latvian and Estonian states after the end of the USSR, using as a backdrop the exclusion of the Russian minority residing in these countries. This dissertation’s aim is to understand the reasons for the existence of people in a social, political and legal limbo, defined as "non-citizens" in the Baltic countries. It is suggested that this situation arises from the inherent contradiction in Latvia and Estonia’s independence process in the post-Cold War: on the one hand, marked by the characteristics constitution of the modern exclusionary State, and, on the other hand, permeated by membership conditionalities of European institutions. From a post-structuralist theoretical perspective, this study understands the construction of states as a performative practice resulting from power relations. In this case, these relationships can be identified internally and externally. Internally, it is demonstrated that Latvian and Estonian states’ construction occurred through the exclusionary citizenship laws establishment against the Russian minority, fueled by a political scenario of legitimizing the national elites in power. At the external level, the adequacy of this exclusionary state construction was modified by the criteria for membership of the European institutions. However, paradoxically, this external pressure was not enough for the Russian minorities to acquire the rights defended by the European institutions, precisely because the European identity itself was built from the opposition to Russia. Therefore, the place of the "non-citizens" in the construction of the Baltic States is the moral boundary between the internal and the external, the national and post-national.

Throughout the past 18 months I have adopted a construct for creating art in regards to what will be presented in this text. Research and statistics about LGBT legislation and societal attitudes inform perceptions of citizens and values within specific cities. Perceptions of these attitudes inform my experiences within these cities. The experiences within these cities inform the creation of text I write. The text I write informs the art, whether it be text, video or performance, that I create. This methodology has been applied before, during and after travelling to Stockholm, Copenhagen, Helsinki, Lappeenranta, Tallinn, Riga, Kaunas and Vilnius, during 2015 and 2016. As an Australian, as an other.

This thesis is applying the neglected concept of assurance on assuring efforts of NATO towards Estonia. This small Baltic republic lives in a fear of conflict with its Russian neighbour which would be impossible to win without help from abroad. The author asks, whether the effort to assure Estonians, that NATO would come to help in case of conflict is successful and what can be improved. To reveal, whether Estonia is assured, the author conducted research interviews in Tallinn with Estonians from the state administration, military, academics, experts from think-tanks and journalist. To get a full picture, the author also used public opinion polls. The thesis uses the concept of assurance as it was defined by Jeffrey W. Knopf. The concept is understudied and almost not used for empirical research. Importance of assuring allies is rising in contemporary's world and this thesis is trying to fill the research gap and show a possible direction for further research on the assurance of allies. Last but not least, the author is contributing to the debate about the defence of the Baltics.

The topic of the thesis is the comprehensive proposal for establishing foreign branch of the company in the Baltics with a distribution network across the countries of the region. The theoretical part is focused on basic information regarding the legal requirements in the countries concerned. Practical part deals with the specific formation of a subsidiary and commissioning.

In the spring of 1924, the Baltic sea coast territory of Klaipėda, formerly a region of East Prussia became an autonomous area administrated by the Republic of Lithuania. Given the mixed nationalities of the population, during the interwar period, Germany and Lithuania both pressured citizens to prefer one or the other nationality, which contributed to gradual radicalization and growing nationalist tendencies. The key outcome was the Kaunas process at the turn of 1934/35. Under the Law for the Protection of the Republic, 87 members of the Klaipėda national-socialist organizations CSA and SOVOG were convicted of conspiracy to annex the territory to Germany. The convictions led to an economic blockade of Lithuania by Germany and a massive pro-German propaganda campaign. The United Kingdom tried to settle the situation by increasing its trade activity with Lithuania, accompanied by diplomatic pressure on Lithuania to ease its stance against Germany. After Lithuania agreed to grant amnesties to those convicted of conspiracy, in 1936/37, German-Lithuanian economic relations were restored. However, in the late 1930s, the Republic of Lithuania became an easily blackmailed and diplomatically isolated state, forced to grant numerous concessions to its German minority population. The Lithuanian government...

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