University of Macau / Faculty of Law

La réalisation du marché intérieur européen par une meilleure intégration des marchés financiers est aujourd’hui devenue une réalité. L'objectif est toutefois loin d'être atteint en matière de crédit hypothécaire, nonobstant de nombreuses initiatives européennes. Compte tenu de ces difficultés et du postulat selon lequel il serait impossible d'harmoniser le droit des suretés immobilières en raison de leur ancrage culturel et national, une proposition alternative consistant dans la création d'une sûreté immobilière commune (euro-hypothèque), venant se superposer aux systèmes nationaux, a été formulée depuis un certain nombre d'années. La recherche analyse dans un premier temps la réalité du postulat précité à la lumière du droit comparé et conclut qu'en réalité, les différents systèmes trouvent non seulement leur origine dans un modèle identique, fondé sur le caractère accessoire de la sûreté, mais ont en outre connu une évolution similaire au cours de ces dernières années. Il apparaît que ce modèle constitue la meilleure base pour toute harmonisation européenne. Après avoir examiné l'interaction avec le droit international privé, sous l'angle de la protection du consommateur, et le droit européen, sous l'angle de la question de la compétence communautaire et du principe de subsidiarité, des pistes sont proposés pour opérer un rapprochement des législations nationales relatives au crédit hypothécaire. La proposition consiste à intégrer dans un seul instrument juridique contraignant (une directive européenne) les différentes propositions permettant d'opérer un rapprochement des législations nationales à trois niveaux : celui de la sûreté immobilière et de la publicité foncier, celui du contrat de prêt et enfin, celui relatif à la procédure de réalisation de l'immeuble.

University of Macau / Faculty of Law

Zugl.: Heidelberg, Universiẗat, Diss., 2008. / Includes bibliographical references (p. lix-lxxiv).

LL.M. (Banking Law) / The charging of interest and the variation thereof throughout the term of a credit agreement has, in a modern South Africa, become the rule rather than the exception. This is so because in a constant evolving economy it will not be viable for large financial institutions to commit themselves to fixed interest rates especially where a credit agreement such as a mortgage agreement may extend over many years. With this comes the question as to the extent of a credit provider’s discretion to vary interest rates and the manner in which it purports to do so. Naturally where the National Credit Act finds application in respect of a credit agreement the provisions thereof relating to interest and the variation thereof will determine whether a clause allowing a credit provider to vary the interest rate unilaterally is valid and enforceable. However in instances where the National Credit Act is not applicable to a certain credit agreement, especially in the case where the consumer is a juristic person, the interest rate levied and the variation thereof will fall to be decided in terms of the common law. The application of the common law in this regard is not without difficulty and there have been many conflicting decisions of our courts in this regard. Whilst the supreme court of appeal has finally decided on the matter of discretionary interest rate clauses it is no doubt that this issue will surface for many years to come. This dissertation explains the comparative positions of interest rate and variable interest rate clauses in terms of the National Credit Act and the common law.

LL.M. / Despite payment cards being of a fairly recent origin,1 these instruments of payment play an increasingly significant role in commerce. With reference to credit cards, Cornelius already in 2003 stated: “They fulfil various functions that are increasingly important at a time that ecommerce is taking off at a tremendous pace.”2 Similarly criminals continuously use more inventive and technologically advanced methods to commit fraud, including counterfeit card fraud. Is the South African criminal law, however, keeping up? The aim of this study is to investigate whether the various activities which form part of the criminal business value chain relating to counterfeit card fraud, with specific reference to bank payment cards, are sufficiently criminalised in South Africa or whether the inability of our criminal law to address the challenges posed by this crime type necessitates the introduction of further legislation. In the first part of the dissertation the South African common and statutory criminal law is investigated in some depth to establish the applicability thereof on the activities forming part of the criminal business value chain relevant to counterfeit card fraud. The appropriateness of certain statutory provisions is questioned and recommendations are made to amend current legislation. An argument is also advanced for further development of the common-law offence of theft to include identity theft and the unlawful copying and subsequent use of data. Brief reference is made to the international situation. Chapter 2 is an introduction to bank payment card fraud in South Africa focusing on the most prevalent forms thereof being card-not-present fraud and counterfeit card fraud. Reference is made to the manner in which offences related to counterfeit card fraud are currently approached in our criminal courts and the limited impact prosecutions has on the prevalence of this fraud type.

Depuis quelques années le droit financier, s'est enrichi des règles de bonne conduite, dans le but de répondre aux crises financières successives. Pour beaucoup, les règles de bonne conduite ont contribué à l'accroissement du contentieux judiciaire au détriment des prestataires de service d'investissement. Néanmoins, il s'agit davantage d'une volonté du législateur d’équilibrer les relations contractuelles entre le professionnel de la finance et le non professionnel au moyen de différentes obligations, qui poursuivent une finalité de transparence. En effet la transparence permet aux contractants d'avoir une confiance dans les marchés financiers. La confiance est fondamentale en droit des marchés financiers, car à défaut personne ne voudra investir dans les marchés financiers. A cette fin, les règles de bonne conduite pallient la crise de confiance des investisseurs par le biais d'obligations d'information à degré variable. Ainsi l'information exigée par les règles de bonne conduite permet plus de transparence et autorise une confiance des investisseurs par l’équilibre des relations contractuelles. / In recent years financial legislation, was enriched by the rules of good behavior in order to respond to successive financial crises. For many, the rules of conduct contributed to the increase in criminal litigation at the expense of investment service providers. Nevertheless, it was more of a will of the legislature to balance the contractual relationship between the financial professional and unprofessional through various obligations, pursuing a goal of transparency. Indeed transparency allows contractors to have confidence in financial markets. Trust is fundamental on financial legislation, as if no one will invest in financial markets. To this end, the rules of conduct palliate the crisis of confidence of investors through information to variable degree requirements. Thus the information required by the rules of conduct allows more transparency and allows investor confidence through the balance of contractual relations.

The international banking environment has become potentially riskier because of the recent developments in financial services and products which have changed the way banks do their day to day business. Imposing minimum capital adequacy regulations is one way of fostering stability in the global banking system. A number of countries have started to implement the new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) following the worldwide consensus among central bankers that bank‟s capital levels should be regulated to enhance global financial stability. In this study, through the comparative analysis of the general implementation issues it was established that emerging countries apply all Basel II rules uniformly across all the banking institutions that operate in their territories. Developed countries apply these rules only to large and internationally active banks and because of the diversity of their banking industries, they also apply domestically modified rules to the domestically based banks. For the successful implementation of Basel II, properly planning, devoting bank resources and making necessary legislative amendments are prerequisites for incorporating Basel II into the regulatory framework for any country. The study concludes that the current global financial turmoil continues to pose a threat to the effectiveness of the Basel II rules which are aimed at achieving global financial stability.

This dissertation examines a bank’s right to unilaterally terminate its contractual relationship with a customer on the basis of reputational risk. The law of contract allows a bank to terminate the bank-customer agreement when the customer is in serious breach of the contract. Over the years, however, a pattern has started to develop by which a bank can unilaterally terminate the bank-customer relationship of high-risk customers based on reputational risk. Banks are reluctant to facilitate the transactions of individuals surrounded by negative publicity, due to fears of how the bank’s investors, customers or counterparts might perceive the bank. Compliance with anti-money laundering (AML) and counter financing of terrorism (CFT) requirements, as set out by both domestic and foreign legislation, results in higher costs for the bank. As such, the profitability of a particular bank-customer relationship may ultimately decline to such an extent that the bank rather decides to make an appropriate business decision by terminating the relationship. Correspondent banking relationships are agreements in terms of which one bank will provide services for another in jurisdictions where the first bank lacks a physical presence. As such, whenever there is a perception that a local bank does not comply with the relevant AML/CFT laws as set out by its domestic legislation, the correspondent bank might decide to terminate its relationship with the local bank, leaving the latter financially excluded from the correspondent banking market. Such a situation would hinder the growth of the South African economy and may also cause a systemic event in the financial industry. Adequate customer due diligence (CDD) measures assist a bank in formulating a clear understanding of the business of its customers. The information obtained through CDD may also assist the bank in determining the reputation of a particular customer. This information can also assist law enforcement in combatting financial crimes. In this regard, it is recommended that a bank should be able to trace the information that was shared with Financial Intelligence Units (FIUs) and law enforcement agencies, so that the bank may reasonably determine the level of reputational risk involved in the relationship. / Mini Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Mercantile Law / LLM / Unrestricted

Depuis sa création la monnaie a été l’objet de nombreuses évolutions. Ces dernières années ont vu l’apparition de cryptomonnaies et de projets de monnaie issus de personnes privées. Ces évolutions ont poussé les États à réagir, se sentant alors menacés dans ce qui constitue un élément majeur de leur pouvoir : la monnaie et son contrôle. Comment les États ont-t-ils réagi à cette menace ? Dans ce mémoire, la monnaie officielle sera étudiée à travers les deux unités qui la composent : l’unité de paiement et l’unité de valeur. Ces deux unités se retrouvent dans les cryptomonnaies stables ainsi que dans les projets de monnaie numérique de banque centrale, leur encadrement juridique sera étudié à travers le prisme de la législation canadienne et européenne. Le projet européen de monnaie numérique de banque centrale étant plus développé que le projet canadien, une attention particulière lui sera portée. Les États ont utilisé leur pouvoir législatif pour faire entrer les cryptomonnaies stables dans les systèmes préexistants, il peut s’agir du marché des valeurs mobilières ou du marché bancaire. Les États utilisent les règles de ces marchés pour encadrer ces innovations et les empêcher de se développer hors du sentier que le droit leur a tracé. La régulation ne permet pas d’endiguer suffisamment le phénomène des monnaies privées car elle ne propose pas d’alternative crédible. Les États ont donc mis en place des projets de monnaies numériques de banques centrales afin de créer cette alternative. / Since its creation, currency has been the subject of numerous evolutions. Recent years have seen the emergence of cryptocurrencies and currency projects from private individuals. These developments compelled states to react, feeling threatened in what constitutes a major element of their power: the currency and its control. How have states reacted to this threat? In this dissertation, official money will be studied through the two units that compose it: the unit of payment and the unit of value. These two units are found in stable cryptocurrencies as well as in central bank digital currency projects, their legal framework will be studied here through the prism of Canadian and European legislation. Since the European central bank digital currency project is more developed than the Canadian one, a special focus will be brought to it. States have used their legislative power to bring stable cryptocurrencies into pre-existing systems, through the securities market or the banking market. States use the rules of these markets to regulate these innovations and prevent them from developing outside the path that the law has paved for them. The various digital currency projects of central banks create an alternative to private currencies. They are the other answer to the concerns created by these new innovations.