Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial disease that results in progressive neurodegeneration. Brain regions are differentially affected in AD; some are more vulnerable to degeneration than others. There is an age-dependent effect on beta-amyloid (Aβ) accumulation and neuroinflammation as disease progresses. In the TgCRND8 APP transgenic mouse model, levels of various Aβ species and cytokines were determined as a function of brain region and age. Aβ was found to accumulate in the brain prior to the sequential elevation of IL-1β and CXCL1. Levels of Aβ, IL-1β and CXCL1 were elevated in regions that are severely affected in AD patients. It has been shown for the first time in an APP transgenic model that CXCL1 elevation occurs following IL-1β elevation.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial disease that results in progressive neurodegeneration. Brain regions are differentially affected in AD; some are more vulnerable to degeneration than others. There is an age-dependent effect on beta-amyloid (Aβ) accumulation and neuroinflammation as disease progresses. In the TgCRND8 APP transgenic mouse model, levels of various Aβ species and cytokines were determined as a function of brain region and age. Aβ was found to accumulate in the brain prior to the sequential elevation of IL-1β and CXCL1. Levels of Aβ, IL-1β and CXCL1 were elevated in regions that are severely affected in AD patients. It has been shown for the first time in an APP transgenic model that CXCL1 elevation occurs following IL-1β elevation.

Die Alzheimersche Erkrankung (AD) ist die häufigste Demenzerkrankung bei älteren Menschen in den westlichen Industriestaaten mit ständig wachsender Zahl der Erkrankten. Trotz angestrengter wissenschaftlicher und medizinischer Forschung ist u. a. noch keine Möglichkeit der klinischen Frühdiagnose dieser Erkrankung etabliert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden am transgenen Mausmodell Tg2576 mit beta-Amyloidplaque-Pathologie cholinerge und adrenerge Parameter sowie Einfluss-größen des Energiestoffwechsels untersucht, um transgen-induzierte neuro-chemische bzw. neuromorphologische Veränderungen im Hirngewebe zu erkennen. Außerdem sollte die Möglichkeit einer ex vivo Markierung solcher Moleküle getestet werden, von denen eine besondere Bindungsaffinität an beta-Amyloidablagerungen bereits bekannt ist. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war, diese Mauslinie weiterhin hinsichtlich ihres Modellcharakters für die Alzheimersche Erkrankung zu beschreiben und potenzielle Plaque-assoziierte Markermoleküle aufzufinden, die einen in vivo Nachweis der b-Amyloidablagerungen erlauben. Die so gewonnenen Erkenntnisse könnten zur Entwicklung neuer Strategien zur Frühdiagnostik der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung beitragen. Genutzt wurden dazu v. a. die biochemischen Methoden der Rezeptorautoradiografie und der Immunhistochemie sowie der in situ Hybridisierung als molekularbiologische Methode. Weiterhin wurde eine radiochemische Methode zur ex vivo Darstellung der Azetylcholinesterase getestet. Bei der Untersuchung des cholinergen Systems konnte eine signifikante Verringerung in der [3H]Hemicholinium-3-Bindung (als Marker des hoch affinen Cholintransporters) bei den fünf Monate alten transgenen Mäusen im Vergleich zu deren nicht transgenen Wurfgeschwistern festgestellt werden. Es wird hier von einem modulatorischen Effekt des löslichen beta-Amyloids ausgegangen, da die jüngeren Tiere noch keine Plaqueablagerungen aufweisen, die Ursache solcher Veränderungen sein könnten. Beim vesikulären Azetylcholintransposter (VAChT) konnte eine signifikante Erhöhung in der [3H]Vesamicol-Bindung bei 17 Monate alten transgenen Mäusen im Vergleich zu nicht transgenen Geschwistertieren beobachtet werden, obwohl der gegenteilige Fall erwartet wurde. Das Ergebnis wird als Ausdruck einer erhöhten Vesikeldichte interpretiert. Die immunhistochemische Untersuchung der a4- und a7-Untereinheiten der nikoti-nischen Azetylcholinrezeptoren ergab, dass die beta-Amyloidplaqueablagerung keinen Einfluss auf morphologische Veränderungen der Neuronen hatte, die diese Rezep-toren tragen. Es gab keine Hinweise, dass solche Neuronen degenerieren. Hinsichtlich der untersuchten Parameter des Glukosestoffwechsels konnten keine Veränderungen zwischen transgenen Tieren und nicht transgenen Wurfgeschwistern festgestellt werden. Bei der Verteilung der Hirnkapillaren konnte eine verringerte Dichte in unmittelbarer Umgebung der b-Amyloidplaques, verglichen mit weiter entfernt liegenden Gebieten, ermittelt werden. Dieser Befund bedarf weiterer Unter-suchungen, da er Relevanz für die in vivo Diagnostik und Therapie besitzen könnte. Im Vergleich mit den zwar oft nicht einheitlichen Befunden bei Alzheimerpatienten wird deutlich, dass das Mausmodell Tg2576 als Modell der Alzheimerschen Erkrankung nicht alle Aspekte der Pathogenese simuliert. Übereinstimmungen ergeben sich bei dieser transgenen Maus hinsichtlich der beta-Amyloidproduktion und -ablagerung im Hirn und den auch beim Menschen vorkommenden entzündlichen Reaktion um die Plaques. Damit kann sie als geeignetes Modell zum Studium der Amyloidogenese und damit verbundener inflammatorischer Prozesse angesehen werden. / Alzheimer´s Disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among the elderly in the Western world, with growing prevalence. In spite of intensive scientific and medical research, no possibility of early clinical diagnosis for this disease has yet been established. In this thesis cholinergic and adrenergic parameters, as well as energy metabolism, were studied in the transgenic mouse model Tg2576, to reveal transgene-induced neurochemical and neuromorphological changes in the brain tissue of these animals. Also, the ex vivo labelling of marker molecules with a known high affinity for beta-amyloid was to be tested. The objective was to further characterize the Tg2576 mouse strain as a model of AD, and to find plaque-associated marker molecules which could be used for the in vivo detection of b-amyloid plaques. Such findings could contribute to the development of new stategies for the early diagnosis of AD. Quantitative receptor autoradiography, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization were the main biochemical and molecular biological methods employed. Furthermore, a radiochemical method was used for ex vivo labelling of acetylcholinesterase. The 5 month-old transgenic mice, with no significant plaque load, demonstrated reduced [3H]hemicholinium-3 binding to choline uptake sites in anterior brain regions, as compared to non-transgenic littermates. This provides evidence of the modulatory effect of soluble beta-amyloid on high affinity choline uptake sites. However, a significant increase of [3H]vesamicol receptor binding to the vesicular acetylcholine transporter was detected in 17 month-old transgenic animals, as compared to non-transgenic mice. Even though the opposite was expected, the result could be interpreted as an elevated vesicle density. The immunhistochemical studies of a4 and a7 subunits of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor revealed that neurons expressing these receptors do not undergo morphological changes in close proximity to beta-amyloid plaques. There was no sign of degeneration in these neurons. Concerning the examined parameters of glucose metabolism, no changes between transgenic animals and non-transgenic littermates were detected. This observation is in accordance with the data available in the literature, but in contrast to findings in AD patients. The density of brain capillaries in close vicinity of beta-amyloid plaques, compared to a more distant surrounding, is reduced. This finding needs further examination because it could be relevant for in vivo diagnosis and therapy. Comparing the transgenic Tg2576 mouse model to AD patients, it becomes apparent that the mouse model does not simulate all aspects of the pathogenesis of this disease. Consistent with the human disease this model is characterized by b-amyloid plaque production and deposition in the brain, as well as inflammatory processes around the plaques, which are also known in humans. Therefore, it represents a suitable model to study amyloidogenesis and inflammation.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by cognitive decline and hallmark neuropathology, including β-amyloid (Aβ). Therapeutic strategies for AD are focusing on reducing Aβ. Canines develop Aβ neuropathology and cognitive decline with age similar to AD patients. In previous studies, immunization with Aβ1-42 (VAC) in aged canines decreased brain Aβ but did not improve cognition. Behavioral enrichment (ENR) improved cognition without reducing brain Aβ. We hypothesized that VAC combined with ENR would provide cognitive benefits and reduce Aβ neuropathology, as compared individual VAC and ENR treatments. Aged beagles were placed into groups: control, VAC with fibrillar Aβ1-42, ENR, and combination treatment (VAC+ENR) for 18 months. Learning and memory was evaluated throughout the study. Serum IgG antibody titers, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and brain Aβ were measured. Serum anti-Aβ1-42 IgG increased significantly in VAC animals. ENR but not VAC significantly increased CSF Aβ1-40. No cognitive improvements were observed in any group. VAC significantly reduced brain Aβ1-40 and 1-42, as well as reduced plaque load. An overall slowing of plaque accumulation was seen in the ENR group. VAC and ENR were able to modify pathology when used as separate treatments; however, the combination treatment did not succeed in further reducing Aβ or improving cognition. Previous AD clinical trials using immunotherapy yielded similar outcomes to our study showing reduced Aβ pathology but little to no cognitive improvements. In combination these results suggest that future studies should focus on prevention approaches both in the canine model and in human clinical trials.

abstract: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia, affecting one in nine people age 65 and older. One of the most important neuropathological characteristics of Alzheimer's disease is the aggregation and deposition of the protein beta-amyloid. Beta-amyloid is produced by proteolytic processing of the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP). Production of beta-amyloid from APP is increased when cells are subject to stress since both APP and beta-secretase are upregulated by stress. An increased beta-amyloid level promotes aggregation of beta-amyloid into toxic species which cause an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a decrease in cell viability. Therefore reducing beta-amyloid generation is a promising method to control cell damage following stress. The goal of this thesis was to test the effect of inhibiting beta-amyloid production inside stressed AD cell model. Hydrogen peroxide was used as stressing agent. Two treatments were used to inhibit beta-amyloid production, including iBSec1, an scFv designed to block beta-secretase site of APP, and DIA10D, a bispecific tandem scFv engineered to cleave alpha-secretase site of APP and block beta-secretase site of APP. iBSec1 treatment was added extracellularly while DIA10D was stably expressed inside cell using PSECTAG vector. Increase in reactive oxygen species and decrease in cell viability were observed after addition of hydrogen peroxide to AD cell model. The increase in stress induced toxicity caused by addition of hydrogen peroxide was dramatically decreased by simultaneously treating the cells with iBSec1 or DIA10D to block the increase in beta-amyloid levels resulting from the upregulation of APP and beta-secretase. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Chemical Engineering 2014

Metal ions are ubiquitously found in all living systems and play vital roles in supporting life forms by performing an array of biological activities. Such biological activities include binding and transforming organic molecules, and also acting as active centers and cofactors for catalysis of various acid-base and redox reactions in biological system. The main focus in bioinorganic chemistry is to elucidate the structural and functional roles of metals in biological systems. Among all transition metal ions, Cu2+ and Fe3+ are especially versatile and important due to their abilities to go through redox efficiently. This dissertation can be divided into four main chapters. The bioinorganic chemistry of Cu- and Fe-containing proteins were briefly discussed in Chapter one. The next chapter focuses on bacitracin, a cyclic peptide-based antibiotic produced by soil bacteria Bacillus subtilis. Bacitracin is a metalloantibiotics that can coordinate with many transition metal ions and exhibit different biological activities. In the first part of Chapter two, the aim is to explore the chemicals interactions in soil micro-ecology by investigating the interactions of different flavonoids and Cu(II)-bacitracin complex. The second part of chapter two demonstrated the binding and oxidation activity of iron(III)-bacitracin. Metal-mediated oxidative stress plays a crucial role in the development of different neurodegenerative diseases. In chapter 3, various synthetic and natural compounds were used to inhibit the oxidation chemistry mediated by Cu(II)-beta-amyloid complex associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Many proteins incorporate copper ions at their active sites for different functions, and among all of the chemistry copper-containing-proteins can perform, one of the most interesting aspect is the ability to bind and activate O2. Therefore, the biomimetic of two different Cu(II) complexes were investigated. In all studies, a combination of kinetic and different spectroscopic methods (UV-vis, NMR and resonance Raman spectroscopy) were used to study their metal binding and activity.

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