This research examines the health of those living within the lowland, east coast region of Scotland from 500-1500 AD utilizing historical, archaeological, and skeletal material. Although the study area was a central part of medieval Scotland, it has not been the focus of any larger scale research into health, including any previous statistical analyses. This study presents the osteological analysis of skeletal remains of four medieval populations (385 individuals) from eastern, lowland Scotland: Ballumbie (N=197 individuals), Isle of May (N=58), St Andrews Library (N=72), and Whitefriars (N=58). Additionally, this research provides a contextualized discussion of the similarities and differences in health of these four lowland populations, focusing on the broad themes of location (rural/urban) and status (high/low). The four study populations are compared statistically through prevalence rates of disease. A compilation of disease prevalence rates for twenty-three other medieval Scottish populations was created to provide further contextualized comparisons of health. The discussion of health from the perspectives of location is framed within the context of access to health care, population density/pathogen load, diet, and sub-adult mortality. Discussions of status focus on differences in housing and diet between the upper and lower status individuals living in medieval society. The role of pilgrimage is explored for the Isle of May with respect to health, illness, and the treatment of the sick. The analysis of four medieval populations in the lowland, east coast region of Scotland illustrate that although they were close geographically, each population had unique aspects to their skeletal health due to differences in their location and status.

abstract: Migrations, past and present, fundamentally influence human interaction, community building, and social evolution. Studies of contemporary migrations demonstrate that the form and intensity of interaction migrants maintain between homeland and host communities shape social dynamics, innovations, and identities. This dissertation applies a contemporary theoretical framework and biogeochemical analyses to elucidate the scale, processes, and impacts of migration in the hinterland of the pre-Hispanic Tiwanaku polity (ca. AD 500-1100). Social diversity is examined by reconstructing the migration histories and dietary choices of individuals interred at the Tiwanaku-affiliated site of Omo M10 in the Moquegua Valley of southern Peru. Radiogenic strontium and stable oxygen isotope data from human dental and skeletal elements are used to characterize intra- and inter-individual paleomobility patterns at Omo M10. When contextualized with archaeological evidence, these data reveal multigenerational interaction through migration between communities in the highland Tiwanaku heartland and at Omo M10. The observed greater mobility of females and juveniles at Omo M10 indicates that women and families played an essential role in maintaining social relationships and persistent cultural continuity in Moquegua Tiwanaku life. Contact with the highlands waned over time as disruption in the urban highland centers likely weakened ties to peripheral lowland communities. Stable carbon and nitrogen data from human dental and skeletal elements are employed to estimate intra- and inter-individual paleodietary patterns. Results indicate diet at Omo M10 varied depending on an individual’s community affiliation, sex, age, and level of mobility; diet broadly changed over time with shifting levels of interaction with highland Tiwanaku communities. Intra-individual biogeochemical analyses of migration and diet at Omo M10 contribute a nuanced perspective on the diverse experiences of multigenerational colonists on the periphery of the Tiwanaku polity. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Anthropology 2019

The late Holocene marks a period of significant population movement and subsistence change throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. Around 3500 BP it appears that foraging populations in southernmost South Africa began to experience stress related to an increasing population and changing climatic conditions. Approximately 1500 years later a new form of subsistence - sheep herding – emerged in areas previously occupied solely by foragers, but was not exclusively adopted. The mechanisms surrounding the introduction of this new subsistence strategy – an indigenous adoption via diffusion or a foreign migration - remain unresolved. This study takes a biological approach to this significant question in southern African prehistory by exploring a collection of Later Stone Age skeletal remains that predate and postdate the appearance of pastoralism in order to determine if any significant changes in skeletal morphology indicative of population discontinuity can be identified at 2000 BP. A collection of seventy-three Later Stone Age adult skeletons (31 M, 42 F) with newly generated radiocarbon dates ranging from 8000 BP to 300 BP (uncalibrated) from the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa forms the basis of this study. Questions surrounding population continuity or discontinuity associated with the advent of sheep herding are investigated by examining metric variables collected from the cranium, post cranial skeleton and dentition, in conjunction with cranial discrete traits. Some changes in skeletal morphology are observed, but the timing, pattern and magnitude of these changes are not consistent with a foreign migration. A reduction in overall skeletal size in the absence of changes in shape corresponds with the period of forager intensification. Body size rebounds at around 2000 BP when evidence for a new form subsistence, sheep herding, is first observed in this region, suggesting that some foragers may have adopted sheep and the herding way of life as a stress relieving mechanism, while others maintained the foraging lifestyle. The timing of the observed changes in skeletal size, the absence of shape changes and the homogeneity in cranial discrete trait frequencies through time argues against the idea that sheep herding was introduced to the Cape region by outsiders. Rather, the findings of the current study suggest sheep herding was an indigenous development among existing foragers.

This study conducts a multi-isotopic bioarchaeological analysis of the Avondale Burial Place (McArthur Cemetery), a recently discovered Emancipation-era African American cemetery near Macon, GA. Stable isotopic analyses were performed on available dental remains in order to reconstruct the diet and demography of the individuals buried at McArthur Cemetery. Specifically, δ18O and δ13C were characterized in tooth enamel and examined in tandem with collaborative osteological and mortuary analyses to reconstruct early-life diet and residential origin. The results suggest that members of the Avondale community buried in McArthur did not experience significant mobility, but rather resided in the area for most of their lives. Overall, these results greatly contribute to the genealogical research of McArthur Cemetery’s descendants as well as the fragmented history of the South by exploring whether the individuals in this community took part in the Great Migration following the Civil War.

The late Holocene marks a period of significant population movement and subsistence change throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. Around 3500 BP it appears that foraging populations in southernmost South Africa began to experience stress related to an increasing population and changing climatic conditions. Approximately 1500 years later a new form of subsistence - sheep herding – emerged in areas previously occupied solely by foragers, but was not exclusively adopted. The mechanisms surrounding the introduction of this new subsistence strategy – an indigenous adoption via diffusion or a foreign migration - remain unresolved. This study takes a biological approach to this significant question in southern African prehistory by exploring a collection of Later Stone Age skeletal remains that predate and postdate the appearance of pastoralism in order to determine if any significant changes in skeletal morphology indicative of population discontinuity can be identified at 2000 BP. A collection of seventy-three Later Stone Age adult skeletons (31 M, 42 F) with newly generated radiocarbon dates ranging from 8000 BP to 300 BP (uncalibrated) from the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa forms the basis of this study. Questions surrounding population continuity or discontinuity associated with the advent of sheep herding are investigated by examining metric variables collected from the cranium, post cranial skeleton and dentition, in conjunction with cranial discrete traits. Some changes in skeletal morphology are observed, but the timing, pattern and magnitude of these changes are not consistent with a foreign migration. A reduction in overall skeletal size in the absence of changes in shape corresponds with the period of forager intensification. Body size rebounds at around 2000 BP when evidence for a new form subsistence, sheep herding, is first observed in this region, suggesting that some foragers may have adopted sheep and the herding way of life as a stress relieving mechanism, while others maintained the foraging lifestyle. The timing of the observed changes in skeletal size, the absence of shape changes and the homogeneity in cranial discrete trait frequencies through time argues against the idea that sheep herding was introduced to the Cape region by outsiders. Rather, the findings of the current study suggest sheep herding was an indigenous development among existing foragers.

The medieval period of Denmark (11th-16th centuries) witnessed two of the worst demographic, health, and dietary catastrophes in history: the Late Medieval Agrarian Crisis (LMAC) and the Black Death plague epidemic. Historians have argued that these events resulted in a change in subsistence from a cereal grain to a more pastorallyfocused diet, and that the population decimation resulted in improved living conditions. This dissertation bioarchaeologically examines the impact of these historically described events on the diet and health of the population from Jutland, Denmark. I examine the stable isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen, dental caries, cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, periosteal reactions, and femur length to examine the samples for dietary and health differences due to sex, time period, site and social status. The results suggest that there are few chronological differences in diet or health in these samples. There are greater disparities among the sites, as peasants from the rural site had a more terrestrially-based diet and poorer health than the urban sites. While there is little difference in diet by sex, there is a disparity in health between the sexes. However, the direction of difference varies by site, suggesting that the relative treatment of the sexes was not universal in Denmark. While the results indicate there is little difference in health by status, there are dietary differences, as elites had a more marinebased diet than peasants. This research indicates the importance of bioarchaeological analysis in the interpretation of historical events. The recording of history is dependent on the viewpoint of the recorder and may not accurately reflect the importance of events on the the population itself. Bioarchaeological techniques examine skeletal material from the individuals in question and may provide a better understanding of the consequences of historic events on the population, such as the effects of the LMAC and Black Death on the population of Denmark. This research reveals that, contrary to historical expectation, these events did not have a measurable impact on Danish diet or health. Thus, the use of historical documentation and bioarchaeological analyses provides a richer understanding of these historical events.

In this dissertation I examine population history and structure in the Maya area during the Classic period (A.D. 250-900). Within the Maya area, archaeologists have identified regional variation in material culture between archaeological zones. These cultural differences may correspond to biological differences between Classic Maya populations. I test the hypothesis that Classic Maya population structure followed an isolation by distance model. I collected dental nonmetric and metric traits on 977 skeletons, from 18 Classic period sites, representing seven different archaeological zones. I corrected the data for intraobserver error. For the dental nonmetric data, I developed a Maya-specific trait dichotomization scheme and controlled for sex bias. I tested the dental metric data for normality and age affects. I imputed missing dental metric data for some traits and the remaining set of traits was Q-mode transformed to control for allometric factors. I analyzed the dental nonmetric and metric datasets with both univariate and multivariate tests. I found, with a log likelihood ratio, that 50% of the nonmetric traits exhibited statistically significant differences between Maya sites. I performed a Mean Measure of Divergence analysis of the dental nonmetric dataset and found that majority of the resulting pairwise distance values were significant. Using cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling, I found that the dental nonmetric data do not support an isolation by distance organization of Classic Maya population structure. In the ANOVA and MANOVA tests, I did not find major statistically significant differences in dental metrics between Maya sites. Using principal components analysis, a Mahalanobis Distance test, and R matrix analysis, I found a generally similar patterning of the dental metric data. The dental metric data to not support an isolation by distance model for Classic Maya population structure. However, the geographically outlying sites from Kaminaljuyu and the Pacific Coast repeatedly plotted as biological outliers. R matrix analysis indicates that gene flow, not genetic drift, dominated Classic Maya population structure. Based on the results of the dental nonmetric and metric analyses, I reject the hypothesis that isolation by distance is a valid model for Classic Maya population structure. From the multivariate analyses of the dental nonmetric and metric data, a few notable observations are made. The major sites of Tikal and Calakmul both demonstrate substantial intrasite biological heterogeneity, with some affinity to other sites but with little to one another. Piedras Negras demonstrates some evidence for genetic isolation from the other lowland Maya sites. In the Pasión Zone, Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios demonstrate some affinity to one another, though Dos Pilas is an outlier. The R matrix analysis found evidence of Classic period immigration into Seibal from outside the network of sites tested. The Belize Zone exhibited substantial heterogeneity among its sites, with the site of Colha showing some affinity to the Central Zone. Copan, despite being a geographic outlier, demonstrates genetic affinity with the rest of the Maya area. Kaminaljuyu and the Pacific Coast were both found to be outliers. These results indicate that dental nonmetric and metric data are a useful tool for investigating ancient biological variability in the Maya area and contribute to our expanding understanding of population history in that region.

During the Medieval period of Denmark, economic and trade relations grew inter-regionally, with culture, ideas, and products being transferred on a more regular basis through the 11th to 13th centuries. Beginning around 1050 AD and lasting until AD 1536, the country faced drastic climatic changes, shifting economic and agricultural practices, and disease outbreaks (most notably the bubonic plague). The current study seeks to investigate mobility during this period from two medieval cemeteries around Horsens, Denmark: the rural site of Sejet and the urban site of Ole Wormsgade, both used throughout the 12th to 16th centuries. A previous isotopic analysis using oxygen indicated that some movement was seen at these sites, with three individuals identified as potential migrants from other Scandinavian regions. This study compares the existing oxygen isotopic data with variations in 87Sr/86Sr ratios from these samples. Such ratios represent local bedrock baselines of strontium, which are slightly different between eastern and western Denmark. ICP-MS was used to measure 87Sr/86Sr ratios, and results are interpreted in the context of climatic changes and shifting socioeconomic practices. The results suggest that longer-distance movements into Denmark were seen during the Early Medieval Period. The potential migrant identified in this research points to movement towards the rural population at Sejet, and could possibly connect this migration with marriage rules influencing immigration at the time. This research demonstrates that movement during the medieval period of Denmark was a complex, dynamic, and multilinear process during a time of increasing urbanization. / October 2015

This research engages in a bioarchaeological analysis of two medieval Danish sites using combined microscopic and macroscopic methods in order to investigate three objectives. The first was to consider the relationship between childhood stress and adult health through the joint consideration of microscopic enamel defects and adult health indicators. Given the context of these populations over a period of history characterized by changing climate and socioeconomic conditions, punctuated by famine and plague, this research also sought to examine temporal patterns in health and stress. Given the increased urbanization over the medieval period, the final objective was to consider health patterns between rural and urban populations. The results showed that the number of stress events did have an impact on later life mortality, and that there was differential expression of this relationship between males and females and between surface and internal enamel defects. A statistically significant decrease in stature was apparent after 1350 A.D. as well as an insignificant increase in tuberculosis and treponema, but an insignificant increase in age at death over time. The inter-site comparison showed higher rates of infectious disease at the rural site of Sejet, with tuberculosis in particular being significantly higher in females at Sejet. Mean age at death was also significantly lower at Sejet for the study sample, but a consideration of the broader cemetery sample showed no significant site differences, suggesting that this might be a sampling phenomenon. These patterns likely reflect the complex nature of the rural and urban interaction during this period, but also emphasize the need for further sampling. This research points to the complex relationship between stress and health and outlines the importance of developing more comprehensive etiological models and operational definitions for identifying stress indicators in dental enamel.

This dissertation presents the results of a comparison of human skeletons from two historic villages (the Larson site, 39WW2, and the Leavenworth site, 39CO9), which were inhabited by Great Plains Village Horticulturalists following the arrival of Europeans and Americans. The people living at these villages are suspected to have experienced changes to their cultural practices, with Larson occupied during the beginning of the Post-Contact period and Leavenworth occupied just before the complete abandonment of the Plains Village lifeway. This study examines whether observed differences in the strength of the bones of their limbs resulted from different activities performed at each village or if the introduction of new genes may have altered limb bone shape during the Post-Contact period. The analysis relies on the examination of limb bone strength (cross-sectional properties) to identify patterns related to activities, but unlike previous studies that examine cross-sectional properties, this analysis includes a measure of biological distance to determine if biological kin share limb bone shape. The results indicate some general trends in limb strength during the Post-Contact period including a reduction in male lower limb bone strength and increased asymmetry in the lower limbs of the women at the later village, and many variables indicate greater variation in limb bone strength among women from both villages. While it is difficult to draw any definitive conclusions about activity, the patterns seem to support accounts from the archaeological and historic records regarding the introduction of new cultural practices and a reduction in mobility, especially among males. The interpretation that these patterns may result from changing activities is bolstered by the analysis of biological distance. Mantel results comparing biodistance scores based on odontometry and distance scores based on limb geometry indicate that intragroup pairwise distance scores rarely correlate, with the left humeri being the most consistent exception to this pattern. The left humeri (and potentially the radius and ulna) may exhibit similarities among related individuals due to these non-dominant bones receiving relatively less biomechanical stress during activities. A seeming paradox developed in the analysis when groups (male and female samples from each site) were compared. Unlike biodistance between individuals, the groups exhibiting the greatest genetic similarities also exhibit the greatest similarity in the cross-sectional shape of their right and left femora, right humeri, and right radii, with the mid-section of the femur exhibiting the most consistent correlation regardless of the side used in the analyses. These bones seem to be the ones experiencing the greatest biomechanical stress during activities. At the group level, shape for those bones experiencing a relatively high degree of biomechanical stress during activity seem to mirror genetic relationships. These correlations may result from a convergence between genetic patterns and activity patterns. Despite greater univariate variation within each sample, females across the two sites exhibit closer biological distances than do the males. This result may be due to both matrilocality, which creates less variation within the female population over time, and continuity in female activity over time. By contrast, males exhibit a greater degree of divergence, suggesting that males from each site are more genetically dissimilar than females and that they may have experienced a greater degree of change to their activities.