Preliminary work towards the development of novel biosensing interfaces for EMPAS (ElectroMagnetic Piezoelectric Acoustic Sensor) is presented in this manuscript. This method involves the use of unprecedented thiosulfonate-based linkers to construct robust and durable SAMs (Self-Assembling Monolayer) onto piezoelectric quartz crystals, which can chemoselectively immobilize thiol-containing biomolecules under aqueous conditions in a single, straightforward, reliable and coupling-free manner. Initial efforts are devoted to the construction of SAMs and the subsequent immobilization of thiol-containing biomolecules, and then characterization by CAMs (Contact Angle Measurement) and ARXPS (Angle-Resolved X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy). This method is then implemented into the construction of biosensing interfaces dedicated to the detection of avidin. With the incorporation of OEG (Oligo(Ethylene Glycol)) backbone and diluent in the method, 14-fold difference in signal response of EMPAS was observed between biotinylated and unfunctionalized SAMs.

Aquest treball discuteix difrerents aspects relacionats amb el disseny de sensors i sistemes de biodetecció. Descriu la fabricació i caracterització de transductors electrics particulars, així com el desenvolupament de nous sistemes de transduccio i el descobriment de noves methodologies per la fabricacio de nanomatrius de proteines.En primer lloc, es presenta un nou tipus de transductor impedimetric (I). Es va escollir un disseny basat en dos electrodes interdigitats per dos motius principals. Primer, aquesta geometria permet monitoritzar tant la resistència como la constant dieléctrica d'una solució, la qual cosa fa dels electrodes interdigitats eines més versatils que altres tipus transductors. Segon, els electrodes presenten una curta penetració del camp electric, la qual cosa els fa mes sensibles als canvis que tenen lloc a prop de la seva superfície. Aquest fet permet monitoritzar canvis locals en les magnituds d'interés. Finalment, són apropiats no nomes per construir sensors sinó també actuadors. Aquesta geometria sembla ser útil en experiments de dielectroforesi. Una innovació introduïda en aquesta tesi es el material escollit per fabricar els electrodes: silici policristal-lí o polisilici. El polisilici pot ser facilment modificat per donar lloc a superficies amb particulars propietats químiques i físiques, fent d'aquest material un excel-lent candidat per a la manufactura de biosensors, comparable a altres aproximacions com la quemisorció de alcanotiols sobre electrodes d'or. Els esmentats electrodes interdigitats es van fer servir per probar dos nous sistemes de transducció. Ambdues aproximacions comparteixen un tret comu: aprofiten la capacitat dels electrodes interdigitats per mesurar canvis local en les propietats elèctriques del medi on es troben submergits. En II, aquest fet és utilitzat per monitoritzar una reacció enzimàtica, i es mostra com la característica de mesura local en electrodes interdigitats dóna lloc a una detecció més sensible. A més, es demostra que aquesta aproximació es adequada per la detecció de proteïnes fent servir l'enzim com a marca en un immunoassaig. En III, els electrodes interdigitats actuen com a sensor i actuador. Com a actuador, els electrodes son capaços de concentrar esferes de làtex a la seva superficie. Com a transductors, la presencia de les micropartícules aïllants a la seva superficie dóna lloc a un canvi en la geometria de la cel-la, que pot ser detectat monitoritzant tant la resistència com la capacitat de la solucio. Aquest mode de funcionament es paral-lel al dels sensors magnetoresistius, i el principi de transduccio proposat es presenta com a una alternativa a ells.Finalment, un quart treball es presenta en aquesta tesi (anex). Comparteix dues característiques en comú amb els treballs previs: el sustrat (silici) i una metodologia per la inmoblització de biomolecules (silanització). Les seves aplicacions son, però, diferents i cobreixen un rang més ampli d'aplicacions. En concret, una nova metodologia pel nanoestructurat de superfícies, de baix cost i fàcil disponibilitat és presentada. Es van aconseguir motius fets amb molècules de silà amb dimensions inferiors als 10 nm. En el marc de la biodetecció, aquesta nova tècnica per nanoestructurat superficial es propossa com a alternativa a la nanolitografia dip-pen per la manufactura de nanomatrius de biomolècules. Les petites dimensions dels motius obtinguts obren el cami per la consecució de nanomatrius d'una única molècula. / This work discusses different aspects related to the design of biosensors and biodetection systems. It describes the fabrication and characterization of particular electric transducers together with the development of new transduction systems and the finding of new methodologies for biomolecule nanoarray fabrication.Firstly, a new type of impedimetric transducer is presented (I). A two-electrode interdigitated design was chosen, mainly for three reasons. First, this geometry allows the monitoring of both the resistivity and the dielectric constant of a solution, thus making interdigitated electrodes more versatile tools than other kind of transducers. Second, they present short electric field penetration depths, which make them more sensitive to changes occurring close to their surface. This fact enables the monitoring of local changes in the magnitudes of interest. Finally, they are suitable for constructing not only sensors but also actuators. This geometry appears to be useful in dielectrophoresis experiments. One innovation introduced in this thesis is the material chosen to fabricate the electrodes: polycrystalline silicon, also known as polysilicon. Polysilicon can be easily modified to render surfaces with distinct physical and chemical properties, thus making this material an excellent approach for biosensors manufacture, comparable to other approaches like alkanethiol chemisorption on gold electrodes. The aforementioned interdigitated electrodes were used to test two new transduction principles. The two approaches share a common feature: they rely on the ability of interdigitated electrodes to measure local changes in the electrical properties of the medium where they are immersed. In II, this is used to monitor an enzymatic reaction, and it is shown that the characteristics of measuring local changes at interdigitated electrodes result in a more sensitive detection. Furthermore, the feasibility of this approach for protein detection is demonstrated by using the enzyme as a label for performing an immunoassay. In III, the interdigitated electrodes act both as a transducer and as an actuator. As an actuator, the electrodes are able to concentrate latex beads at their surface. As a transducer, the presence of the insulating microparticles at their surface results in a change in the geometry of the cell, that can be detected by monitoring either the resitance or the capacitance of the solution. Such device performance is parallel to that of magnetoresistive biosensors, and the proposed transduction principle is envisaged as a suitable alternative to them.Finally, a fourth work is presented in this thesis (Annex). It shares two features in common with the previous works: the substrate (silicon) and a method for biomolecule immobilization (silanization). However, the applications are somehow different, and cover a wider range. Precisely, a new methodology for low cost, easily available nanopatterning is shown. Features made of silane molecules, with dimensions less than 10 nm are successfully patterned. In the frame of biodetection, this new nanopatterning technique is proposed as an alternative to dip-pen nanolithography in nanoarray manufacture. Moreover, the small dimensions of the obtained patterns pave the way for the achievement of single-molecule nanoarrays.

The present study exploits two different molecules as biorecognition elements for biosensing. In the first case, a protein biosensor was performed using maltose-binding protein (MBP). The ability to manipulate protein function rationally also offers the possibility of creating new proteins of biotechnological value. Our design has been used to test the understanding of allosteric transitions in proteins. Here we examined a simple conformational change that can represent the biorecognition principle for a reagentless biosensor. Previously, modular strategies for transducing ligand-binding events into fluorescent and electrochemical responses have been reported. Starting with a study of the conformational changes of MBP this research will further develop electrochemical maltose biosensors. The responses of four individual mutations (K46C-MBP-MT, N282C MBP-MT, Q72C-MBP-MT; and K25C-MBP-MT) were evaluated using square wave voltammetry. The possibility of using this type of transduction mechanism for sensor configurations and analyte specificity is discussed.The second part of this work involves SELEX (systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment) and aptamers as biorecognition molecules. As a result of the SELEX method, we can obtain oligonucleotide sequences (aptamers) with recognition properties similar to antibodies. These synthetic elements play an important role in molecular recognition because of their capability for specifically binding of a target molecule. A new approach for the separation step has been performed, termed Soluble-SELEX. This new SELEX method uses hybridization as partitioning mechanism for separating the bound and unbound DNA members from the target-molecule. Hybridization procedure has been evaluated by fluorescence studies as partitioning mechanism for SELEX method. Herein, we exploited the incorporation of an aptamer for biosensing detection of a specific target molecule. Three different transduction methods such as fluorescence, electrochemistry and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) were evaluated. In all three cases, the biosensing procedure was successful.In conclusion, this research has evaluated the translation of a fluorescent biosensor into an electrochemical biosensor using maltose-binding protein as biorecognition element. On the other hand, a new SELEX method has been developed. However, future improvements are required in order to optimize the method. As result of SELEX a new avidin-aptamer was selected and three different transduction systems were employed to construct fluorescent, surface Plasmon resonance and electrochemical biosensors. / El presente estudio utiliza dos moléculas diferentes como elementos de bioreconocimiento. En el primer caso, un biosensor basado en proteínas fue desarrollado utilizando la proteína periplasmica de unión a maltosa (MBP = maltose-binding protein). La habilidad para manipular racionalmente la función de una proteína también ofrece la posibilidad de crear nuevas proteínas con valor biotecnológico. Nuestro diseño proteico ha sido usado para evaluar cambios alostéricos en proteínas. Este estudio evalúa un simple cambio conformacional el cual puede ser usado como el principio transductivo para un biosensor. Diferentes estrategias de transducción usando fluorescencia y electroquímica en eventos de reconocimiento entre la proteínas periplasmicas de unión y el ligando, han sido previamente reportadas. Esta investigación inicia con el estudio de los cambios conformacionales de MBP, continuando con el desarrollo de un biosensor electroquímico para maltosa. La señal de cuatro diferentes mutantes (K46C-MBP-MT, N282C MBP-MT, Q72C-MBP-MT; y K25C-MBP-MT) fue evaluada usando voltimetría de onda cuadrada. La posibilidad de usar este tipo de transducción mecánic (distancia) para la configuración de biosensores y la respectiva especificidad analítica es discutida. La segunda parte de este trabajo incluye el método SELEX (systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment) y aptameros como moléculas de bioreconocimiento. Como resultado de el método SELEX, podemos obtener secuencias de oligonucleótidos (aptameros) con propiedades de reconocimiento similares a los anticuerpos. Estos elementos sintéticos, tienen un importante rol en el reconocimiento molecular por su capacidad de unión específica a la molécula blanco. Un nuevo mecanismo para el paso de separación ha sido realizado, y llamado SELEX-Soluble. Este nuevo método SELEX usa la hibridización como mecanismo de separación para dividir los oligonucleótidos de DNA que no se unen y los que se unen a la molécula blanco. El procedimiento de hibridización y su uso como mecanismo de separación en el método SELEX ha sido evaluado a través de estudios de fluorescencia. Este estudio también explora la incorporación de un aptamero como elemento de reconocimiento en un biosensor. Tres diferentes mecanismos de transducción has sido evaluados: fluorescencia, electroquímica y resonancia de plasmon superficial (SPR). En los tres casos una excelente señal fue reportada. En conclusión, esta investigación ha evaluado la transferencia de una biosensor de fluorescencia a un biosensor electroquímico, utilizando la proteína periplásmica de unión a maltosa como elemento de bioreconocimiento. De otro lado, un nuevo método SELEX ha sido desarrollado. Sin embargo, futuras mejoras son requeridas para optimizar el método. Como resultado del método SELEX realizado un nuevo aptamero para avidita ha sido seleccionado y tres diferentes sistemas de transducción ha sido empleado para construir tres diferentes biosensores (fluorescencia, electroquímica y SPR).

A proof-of-concept for a novel microarray used to study protein-ligand interaction in real-time using label-free detection is presented. Many of todays commercially available instruments lack the ability to immobilize membrane proteins. At the same time, the pharmaceutical industry develops drugs directed towards membrane-bound receptors. The need to study drug-target kinetics and to be able to screen for new medical substances is high. To study the biomolecular interactions in real-time, imaging surface plasmon resonance (iSPR) is used. A patterned sensor surface with hydrophobic barriers assisting in the piezodispensing of NeutrAvidin with complex-bound biotin-ssDNA is created. Histidine-tagged proteins are immobilized at the vesicle surface using divalent nitrilotriacetic acid. The concept of the vesicle immobilization, the protein-binding to vesicles and the protein-ligand interaction is initially studied using a Biacore instrument. The dissociation of the ligand IFNα2 from its receptor ifnar-2 (wt) are in accordance with the literature. In the imaging SPR experiments, it is found that the dissociation of IFNα2 from the ifnar-2 (wt) receptor is slower than expected, probably due to rebinding of the ligand. It is also found that imidazole is needed to avoid vesicle-vesicle interaction. The immobilization of proteins had to be done on-line i.e. when the vesicles were bound to the surface. Depending on the mixture of receptors at the vesicle surface the affinity for the ligand was changed. The results achieved were reproducible.

In this study, Sezawa-mode surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices were employed to construct the allergy biosensor. To fabricate Sezawa-mode SAW devices, the RF magnetron sputtering method for the growth of piezoelectric ZnO thin films onto Si3N4/Si is adopted and influences of the sputtering parameters are investigated. The properties of the ZnO thin films are investigated by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy which reveal a high c-axis-preferred orientation. A back-etched resonator is used in this study. The wet etching of (100)-oriented silicon wafers is used to form a back-side cavity which is used as the sensing area. Low-stress silicon nitride was deposited by low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) as the etching mask for the integrated SAW device. To investigate the sensing characteristics of SAW, gold (Au) layer was initially deposited onto the sensing area of SAW devices as the binding layer in biochemical sensor and the surface of the Au layer was treated with oxygen plasma to enhance the hydrophilic properties of the Au layer. The self assembly monolayers (SAMs) is used to decorate surface of Au layer and the sandwiched enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is used for detecting the concentration variation of immunoglobulin E (IgE) in human serum. The frequency response is measured using an E5071C network analyzer. The resonance frequency of the Sezawa-mode SAW device is 1.49 GHz. The sensitivities of the Sezawa-mode biosensor is calculated to be 6.64 MHz cm2/ng for human IgE detection.

Zugl.: Wien, Techn. Univ., Diss., 2009

No description available.

In this thesis, three different read-out techniques for biomolecular recognition have been studied. All three techniques rely on the change in dynamic behaviour of probe functionalised magnetic beads after binding to a biomolecular target complementary to the probe. In the first technique presented, the sample is exposed to an AC magnetic field while the response to this field is probed using a laser source and a photodetector positioned at opposite sides of the sample. Beads bound to the target entity will experience an increase in their hydrodynamic volume, and will not be able to respond as rapidly to an alternating field as free beads. Here, the target entity is either DNA coils formed by rolling circle amplification or biotinylated bovine serum albumin (bBSA). The change in dynamic behaviour is measured as a frequency dependent modulation of transmitted light. Limit of detections (LODs) of 5 pM DNA coils originating from a V. cholerae target and 100 pM of bBSA have been achieved. In the second technique presented, the beads are magnetically transported across a probe functionalised detection area on a microchip. Beads bound to a target will be blocked from interaction with the detection area probes, whereas in the absence of a target, beads will be immobilised on the detection area. The LOD of biotin for this system proved to be in the range of 20 to 50 ng/ml. In the third technique presented, the sample is microfluidically transported to a detection area on a microchip. The read-out is performed using a planar Hall effect bridge sensor. A sinusoidal current is applied to the bridge in one direction and the sensor output voltage is measured across the sensor in the perpendicular direction. The AC current induced bead magnetisation contributing to the sensor output will appear different for free beads compared to beads bound to a target. LODs of 500 B. globigii spores and 2 pM of V. cholerae DNA coils were achieved. From a lab-on-a-chip point of view, all three techniques considered in this thesis show promising results with regards to sensitivity and integrability.

Resonant microcantilevers are promising transducers for bacteria detection because of their high sensitivities. Surface stress and mass from adsorbates affect the resonant frequency. We developed a novel method for decoupling the frequency contributions of a change in mass and surface stress on a cantilever sensor validated in theoretical, finite element and experimental framework. Bacteria capture was achieved by several different chemical immobilization of T4 phages. The most successful bacteria capturing surface produced bacterial densities of about 11 bacteria/100^m2. The developed theory is then applied to determine captured bacterial mass on the cantilevers. This provides an estimate of the bacteria mass on the cantilever. Two different functionalizations resulted in predicted bacterial densities of 5 bacteria/100^m2 and 3 bacteria/100^m2. Poor densities relative to surface capture experiments is caused by the boundary effects of the cantilever in solution. / Microelectromechanical Systems and Nanosystems

Legionella spp. can cause a life threatening form of pneumonia, which is observed world-wide. Outbreaks of the disease are, unfortunately, not a rare event, despite the introduction of government regulations which enforce the mandatory testing of cooling towers to ensure that they contain levels of the organism which are regarded as being within safe limits. Therefore, cooling towers should be monitored for Legionella spp. by using a biosensor. These could potentially save the community from a great deal of morbidity and mortality due to legionellosis. This study identified and investigated novel outer membrane proteins in L. pneumophila, and analysed their potential for use in a Legionella biosensor. A combination of bioinformatics and laboratory investigations was used to identify the Omp87, an outer membrane protein of L. pneumophila which had not been previously described in this organism. Sequence analysis of the protein showed that it shares similarity with various other members of the Omp85 protein family, including the D15 antigen of Haemophilus influenzae and the Oma87 of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The omp87 gene of L. pneumophila was amplified and cloned, and was found to encode a protein of 786 amino acids, with a molecular weight of 87 kDa. Distribution studies revealed that the gene is present in most, but not all species and serogroups of Legionella. To investigate the function of the Omp87 protein in L. pneumophila, the omp87 gene was insertionally inactivated with the use of a kanamycin resistance gene. Amplicons of this disrupted gene were then introduced into L. pneumophila, and a double-cross over event occurred, integrating the inactivated gene into the genome of the organism. This resulted in non-viable cells, indicating that the gene is essential in L. pneumophila. The expression vector pRSETA was used to express the Omp87 protein in E. coli, and four truncates of varying sizes were designed, through the use of different PCR primers. Two of the protein truncates were then expressed and purified by gravity flow chromatography using columns packed with Ni-NTA sepharose resin. Following analysis of the proteins by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting, polyclonal antibodies were raised against the truncates. Distribution studies were then performed using the antiserum with different strains and species of Legionella. This study demonstrated that most serogroups of L. pneumophila, and most other Legionella species reacted with the polyclonal anti-Omp87 L. pneumophila antisera. Cross-reactivity was also observed with most other Legionella related organisms tested. The results presented in this thesis demonstrated that the Omp87 protein or the omp87 gene can be used to construct a biosensor. In addition other novel outer membrane proteins were identified which could also serve as potential targets for a biosensor. These biosensors will be able to identify Legionella spp. in water reservoirs and in clinical samples and hopefully reduce the number of infections and deaths caused by this organism.