A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master of Arts in Demography and Population Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, 2017 / BACKGROUND: Nigeria has a very low level of modern contraceptive use; with resultant effects of high fertility, and maternal and child mortality. It is Africa’s most populated country, and with a rapid growth rate. Modern methods of contraception is a crucial strategy to reduce the high fertility rate, halt population growth, lessen child mortality, and enhance maternal health. This study aims to assess partner’s economic and demographic asymmetries as barriers contributing to the uptake of modern contraceptives among young married and cohabiting women aged 15-24 years in Nigeria. METHOD: This study used data from the Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey 2013, with a sample of 4,981 young (15 – 24 years) married and cohabiting women. The Health Belief Model was used to explain partner’s socio-economic and demographic differences as barriers to the utilisation of modern contraceptives. Frequency distributions and binomial logistic regression were carried out using STATA v12 to answer the research questions. RESULTS: Only 6% of young married and cohabiting women use modern contraceptives. In the unadjusted analyses, women who were in less homogamous unions were less likely to practise modern method contraception. Respondents younger than their partners by 6-10 years and respondents younger by 11 or more years were less likely to use modern contraceptives (UOR= 0.357, CI 0.135-0.943; UOR= 0.223, CI 0.084-0.595). Respondents whose partners want more children were less likely to use modern contraceptives while respondents whose partners want fewer number of children compared to them were more likely to use modern contraceptives (UOR= 0.325, CI 0.240-0.439; UOR= 1.812 CI 1.1082.963 respectively). However, these associations were no longer significant after adjusting for women’s age, highest level of education, place of residence, religion, and region of residence and other differences. CONCLUSION: This study concluded that socio-economic and demographic differences between married partners are not associated with young women's contraceptive use in Nigeria, after adjusting for women’s characteristics. Further studies, especially qualitative studies, are needed to understand this finding. Keywords: Modern contraceptives, young married women, partner asymmetries, Health Belief Model, Nigeria / GR2018

Thesis advisor: Cynthia L. Lyerly / The forty year fight to reform the 1879 Comstock statute that prohibited the use of birth control in Connecticut began in 1923. When the 1879 measure was originally enacted, it was in response to the bustling market for pornography and reflected that part of the Victorian moral reform movement which classified all things that referenced sex as obscene. Throughout the lengthy struggle, several court cases were pursued and numerous bills were introduced in the state legislature to various degrees of support. Every decade had a different set of arguments for and against the legalization of birth control, spanning from economic and social to medical and moral. The law was ruled unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in 1965 based on the burgeoning right to privacy. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2007. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: History. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar o conhecimento sobre métodos anticoncepcionais (MAC) e identificar as variáveis associados ao conhecimento adequado sobre o tema, em adolescentes de escolas públicas municipais de Ribeirão Preto-SP. Consiste em um estudo do tipo transversal, desenvolvido segundo uma abordagem quantitativa. Foram escolhidas, intencionalmente, duas escolas municipais. A amostra foi constituída por cento e vinte (120) adolescentes, de ambos os sexos, com idade de 13 a 16 anos. A coleta de dados ocorreu no período de 05/03/2007 a 16/03/2007, sendo que o instrumento para a coleta foi um questionário semi-estruturado. Os resultados mostraram que os adolescentes deste estudo pertenciam ao grupo de idade entre 13 - 14 anos (81,7%), sendo que adolescen tes com 15-16 anos represen taram a menor parte (18,3%). O sexo masculino representou 51,6% da amostra e, o feminino, 48,4%. A iniciação sexual ocorreu com 13 anos para ambos ,no sexo feminino com (71,43%)e no sexo masculino (41,18%). Com relação ao uso da camisinha masculina 57,5% dos adolescentes entrevistados não utilizaram a camisinha e 28,3% a utilizaram em suas relações sexuais. Quanto ao uso de métodos anticoncepci onais, para a primeira relação, os resultados mostraram que 36,7% não fizeram uso de nenhum tipo de método e 54,2% não responderam. Em relação segundo o local de obtenção dos MAC os resultados mostraram que 75,8% obtinham no posto de saúde através do médico e 50,7% em farmácias. Sobre a diversidade de métodos anticoncepcionais, o trabalho mostrou que 45% não conheciam nenhum método, seguido de 20,8% que conheciam apenas um; 5,8% conheciam dois tipos e 10,8% conheciam três. Os métodos anticoncepcionais mais conhe cidos foram os de barreira, como o preservativo masculino (45,8%) e o feminino (30,8%), seguidos os anticon cepcionais orais (28,3%). No que diz respeito às fontes de informações e orientações desses métodos, a escola foi a mais citada pelos alunos, com 51,7% e, logo em seguida, surge a família, com 40,8% e a televisão, também com cerca de 40%. O estudo evidenciou que as estratégias mais utilizadas pela escola para informar sobre sexualidade, gravidez na adolescência e os métodos anticoncepcionais foram: no decorrer das aulas (40,8%),e em seguida com a palestra (32,5%). Entre os temas discu tidos em sala de aula com o professor, o mais citado foi sexualidade, com 57,4%. Sobre o diálogo em família, os entrevis tados consideraram a mãe o elo de comunicação mais importante sendo avaliado como bom por 79,2% dos entrevistados. Dos diversos tipos de atendimento à saúde, recebido na Unidade Básica pelo adolescente, a consulta médica foi o mais citado pelos entrevistados, com 48,2%. O estudo mostrou ainda que o conhecimento sobre os métodos anticoncepcionais não garante o seu uso. Entretanto, a disponibilidade de maior número de serviços e orientações sistematizadas sobre tais métodos podem favorecer a mudança de atitudes dos adolescentes em relação a uma prática de uso eficiente e preventivo em relação aos MAC. / The present study aimed to assess knowledge on contraceptive methods and identify variable associated with appropriate knowledge among students in the municipal school system of Ribeirão Preto -SP. This transversal study was developed through a quantitative approach. Two schools belonging to the Health District of Vila Virgínia were purposely selected and the sample size was a fixed number of 120 adolescent students of both genders, aged between 13 and 16. Data collection was conducted from 03/05/2007 to 03/16/2007 and a semi-structured questionnaire was used as data collection instrument. The research showed that the subjects consisted of a group of adolescents between13 and14 years old (81,7%) and a smaller group of adolescents between 15 and 16 years old (18,3%), with males representing 51.6% and females 48.4%. The sexual initiation occurred around the age of 13 for both genders(71,43%) of females and (41,18%) male sex . The use condom was reported by (57,5%) of subjets group did not using, while among the group within the same, 28.3% reported using it. The findings also showed that 36,7% of the subjects did not use any kind of contraceptive method in their first sexual intercourse, and 54,2% did not answer this question. Regarding ways to obtain contraceptive methods, the results showed that 75,8% of the subjects received them from a Health Unit and a doctor of them prescription, 50,7% bought them at a drugstore. The study showed that 45% of the students did not know any kind of contraceptive method, followed by 20.8% that knew only one kind, 5.8% knew two methods, and 10.8% knew three kinds of methods. The most widely known method was the male condom (45,8%) and the female kind (30.8%), followed by the oral contraceptive (28.3%). As for sources of information and advice on contraceptive methods, the most common source was the school (51.7%), followed by the family (40.8%), and TV (40%). The study showed that the advice and information on sexuality, pregnancy in adolescence, and contraceptive methods received at school were delivered through lectures (32.5%) and during lessons (40.8%). According to the data, among the topics associated with health in adolescence discussed in class with the teacher, sexuality was the most common one (57.4%). In terms of conversations with the family, the mother was shown to be the most important bond. In addition, the level of communication with the mother was considered good by 79.2% of the students. Health attention received at the Health Unit and consultation with a doctor was the most common option mentioned by adolescents (48.2%). The research showed that knowing contraceptive methods does not guarantee their use. However, availability of more services and extensive advice on contraceptive methods can assist in changing adolescents\' behavior as regards the efficient and preventive use of contra ceptive methods.

This study investigated the perceptions of college student health center administrators concerning the availability of contraceptive services to college students. The major purposes of the study were (1) to determine the extent to which specific contraceptive services were available to college students from various sources, (2) to determine the extent and effectiveness of any opposition or support from various pressure groups concerning the provision of contraceptive services by student health centers, and (3) to describe the trend, as .perceived by student health center directors, of student access to contraceptive services from 1970 to 1975 and to project the trend to 1980. The findings indicated that pressure activity supporting the provision of contraceptive services by student health centers arose mostly from institutionally related student groups and was considered to be "effective" (i.e., influenced administrative decision making). Pressure which arose from other groups was found to be slight and of little effectiveness.

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar o conhecimento sobre métodos anticoncepcionais (MAC) e identificar as variáveis associados ao conhecimento adequado sobre o tema, em adolescentes de escolas públicas municipais de Ribeirão Preto-SP. Consiste em um estudo do tipo transversal, desenvolvido segundo uma abordagem quantitativa. Foram escolhidas, intencionalmente, duas escolas municipais. A amostra foi constituída por cento e vinte (120) adolescentes, de ambos os sexos, com idade de 13 a 16 anos. A coleta de dados ocorreu no período de 05/03/2007 a 16/03/2007, sendo que o instrumento para a coleta foi um questionário semi-estruturado. Os resultados mostraram que os adolescentes deste estudo pertenciam ao grupo de idade entre 13 - 14 anos (81,7%), sendo que adolescen tes com 15-16 anos represen taram a menor parte (18,3%). O sexo masculino representou 51,6% da amostra e, o feminino, 48,4%. A iniciação sexual ocorreu com 13 anos para ambos ,no sexo feminino com (71,43%)e no sexo masculino (41,18%). Com relação ao uso da camisinha masculina 57,5% dos adolescentes entrevistados não utilizaram a camisinha e 28,3% a utilizaram em suas relações sexuais. Quanto ao uso de métodos anticoncepci onais, para a primeira relação, os resultados mostraram que 36,7% não fizeram uso de nenhum tipo de método e 54,2% não responderam. Em relação segundo o local de obtenção dos MAC os resultados mostraram que 75,8% obtinham no posto de saúde através do médico e 50,7% em farmácias. Sobre a diversidade de métodos anticoncepcionais, o trabalho mostrou que 45% não conheciam nenhum método, seguido de 20,8% que conheciam apenas um; 5,8% conheciam dois tipos e 10,8% conheciam três. Os métodos anticoncepcionais mais conhe cidos foram os de barreira, como o preservativo masculino (45,8%) e o feminino (30,8%), seguidos os anticon cepcionais orais (28,3%). No que diz respeito às fontes de informações e orientações desses métodos, a escola foi a mais citada pelos alunos, com 51,7% e, logo em seguida, surge a família, com 40,8% e a televisão, também com cerca de 40%. O estudo evidenciou que as estratégias mais utilizadas pela escola para informar sobre sexualidade, gravidez na adolescência e os métodos anticoncepcionais foram: no decorrer das aulas (40,8%),e em seguida com a palestra (32,5%). Entre os temas discu tidos em sala de aula com o professor, o mais citado foi sexualidade, com 57,4%. Sobre o diálogo em família, os entrevis tados consideraram a mãe o elo de comunicação mais importante sendo avaliado como bom por 79,2% dos entrevistados. Dos diversos tipos de atendimento à saúde, recebido na Unidade Básica pelo adolescente, a consulta médica foi o mais citado pelos entrevistados, com 48,2%. O estudo mostrou ainda que o conhecimento sobre os métodos anticoncepcionais não garante o seu uso. Entretanto, a disponibilidade de maior número de serviços e orientações sistematizadas sobre tais métodos podem favorecer a mudança de atitudes dos adolescentes em relação a uma prática de uso eficiente e preventivo em relação aos MAC. / The present study aimed to assess knowledge on contraceptive methods and identify variable associated with appropriate knowledge among students in the municipal school system of Ribeirão Preto -SP. This transversal study was developed through a quantitative approach. Two schools belonging to the Health District of Vila Virgínia were purposely selected and the sample size was a fixed number of 120 adolescent students of both genders, aged between 13 and 16. Data collection was conducted from 03/05/2007 to 03/16/2007 and a semi-structured questionnaire was used as data collection instrument. The research showed that the subjects consisted of a group of adolescents between13 and14 years old (81,7%) and a smaller group of adolescents between 15 and 16 years old (18,3%), with males representing 51.6% and females 48.4%. The sexual initiation occurred around the age of 13 for both genders(71,43%) of females and (41,18%) male sex . The use condom was reported by (57,5%) of subjets group did not using, while among the group within the same, 28.3% reported using it. The findings also showed that 36,7% of the subjects did not use any kind of contraceptive method in their first sexual intercourse, and 54,2% did not answer this question. Regarding ways to obtain contraceptive methods, the results showed that 75,8% of the subjects received them from a Health Unit and a doctor of them prescription, 50,7% bought them at a drugstore. The study showed that 45% of the students did not know any kind of contraceptive method, followed by 20.8% that knew only one kind, 5.8% knew two methods, and 10.8% knew three kinds of methods. The most widely known method was the male condom (45,8%) and the female kind (30.8%), followed by the oral contraceptive (28.3%). As for sources of information and advice on contraceptive methods, the most common source was the school (51.7%), followed by the family (40.8%), and TV (40%). The study showed that the advice and information on sexuality, pregnancy in adolescence, and contraceptive methods received at school were delivered through lectures (32.5%) and during lessons (40.8%). According to the data, among the topics associated with health in adolescence discussed in class with the teacher, sexuality was the most common one (57.4%). In terms of conversations with the family, the mother was shown to be the most important bond. In addition, the level of communication with the mother was considered good by 79.2% of the students. Health attention received at the Health Unit and consultation with a doctor was the most common option mentioned by adolescents (48.2%). The research showed that knowing contraceptive methods does not guarantee their use. However, availability of more services and extensive advice on contraceptive methods can assist in changing adolescents\' behavior as regards the efficient and preventive use of contra ceptive methods.

Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy is a public health concern due to the possible lifelong physical and cognitive effects in offspring. Prevention of alcohol-exposed pregnancies (AEP) should begin preconceptionally, either by preventing unintended pregnancies or by discouraging alcohol consumption in women who are at-risk for pregnancy. The purpose of this dissertation is to utilize the Theory of Planned Behavior's construct of perceived behavioral control (PBC)--including perceived power and control beliefs--to guide the measurement and understanding of two behaviors related to AEP among non-pregnant women: birth control use and binge drinking. For the first specific aim--to estimate the prevalence of alcohol-exposed pregnancies--a secondary data analysis was conducted using surveillance data from North Dakota and South Dakota women who have had a child with FAS. The FAS prevalence estimates (per 1,000 live births) in both states (ND=0.8/1,000; SD=0.9/1,000) were found to be higher than that calculated from national averages (0.7/1,000) using a comparable surveillance methodology. The goal of Specific Aim 2 was to determine risk for AEP among a random group of women, while Specific Aim 3 determined the control beliefs and perceived power to using birth control and decreasing binge drinking levels, and Specific Aim 4 focused on relating PBC of these two behaviors to behavioral intentions. Data for aims 2-4 were derived from a mailed, cross-sectional survey of 190 non-pregnant women randomly chosen from an electronic health records system in the upper Midwest. Of the 190 women included in the analyses, eight (6.6%) were binge drinking while being at-risk for pregnancy (i.e., being sexually active but not always using an effective form of birth control) (Specific Aim 2). This is lower than national estimates. For Specific Aim 3, there were high direct PBC scores for both birth control and binge drinking, and there was a positive correlation between birth control direct and indirect scores (although a negative correlation between binge drinking direct and indirect scores). Finally, Specific Aim 4 uncovered high intentions to both use birth control and to not binge drink. Also, the direct birth control PBC measure was significantly associated with birth control intention when controlling for other variables, although neither PBC nor intention appeared to be associated with actual birth control behavior. For binge drinking, the intention score and the direct measure of PBC were significantly associated with one another; as well, the direct measure of PBC and intention were both significantly associated with actual binge drinking behavior. Therefore, the relationship between PBC and intention was validated for both behaviors, and the association between PBC, intention, and actual behavior was indicated for binge drinking. Overall, the study both supported and disagreed with previous research, indicating that additional research with this theory and topic matter is necessary.

Since few studies have explicitly focused on the impact of China's one-child-family policy on Chinese women, this thesis is designed to explore this aspect. The implication of the policy for both urban and rural women is studied, particularly its influence on women's fertility behavior, labor roles, and on social, health and family status. The focus of the study is to explore the changes of women's lives associated with the one-child-family policy, and advantages and disadvantages, even contradictions the policy has brought to women's lives.

Pregnancy intention is extensively examined in the literature and the concept of "unintended" pregnancy is considered a significant health problem. Large efforts have been made to reduce negative health consequences presumably associated with pregnancies that are unexpected, unwanted, or mistimed but have had limited impact. A study was conducted to examine contextual issues surrounding women's experiences with pregnancy intention its intersection with knowledge, perceptions, and use of emergency contraception in a population of female university students. The project was a mixed method study including a survey examining demographic characteristics, sexual history, and knowledge and use characteristics in addition to interviews exploring prospective perceptions of pregnancy intention. An integrative review informed the background of the study demonstrating the need for expansion of current concepts of pregnancy intention that inform measurement and subsequent interventions. Quantitative survey results provide new information including higher rates of use in comparison to previous studies but persistence of misinformation. Qualitative interview findings illustrate a process by which individual agency in terms of sexual and pregnancy decision making is influenced by a precursor of the embodiment of convictions and empowerment. Combined conclusions confirm the need of exploring the role of the social context on pregnancy intention, suggest ways in which nurses can empower women to be their own agents of health, and start discussions of how intervention approaches to pregnancy intention can be improved.

<p>The subject of sexuality has been one of the most heated issues of the Popes throughout the history of the Catholic Church. The topics discussed by the various popes over the years, regarding sexuality, are limited to marriage, the conjugal act, the decline in morals, natural and artificial birth control, abortion, as well as more recently, modern methods of assisted reproduction. </p><p>Moral changes and trends in modern society have had an impact on Catholic Religion. Modern society faces a culture that influences norms and expectations and seems to accept free sexuality. The popes respond slowly or not at all to these cultural trends.</p>

<p>This thesis is about birth control, gender and sexuality during the Swedish fertility transition (1880-1940). The aim is to study birth control at both an ideational and a practical level, as well as to analyse the ways in which birth control was constructed and realised through different notions of gender. The ideational level includes studies of the Swedish morality debates, norms and ideals concerning both gender and birth control, and the radical socialist propaganda for birth control. The practical level analyses how ordinary people experienced birth control and how they motivated their decision to limit childbearing.</p><p>The thesis is grounded in post-structuralist gender theory. Gender is seen as a process with separate implications for men and women. Respectable women were supposed to demonstrate shyness, humility and sexual passivity while respectable men demonstrated responsibility, attentiveness and sexual knowledge. A respectable man should also protect his wife from pregnancy by abstaining from sex. These norms were to some extent challenged by radical propagandists who promoted mechanical birth control, rather than abstention, as a means to control fertility. In doing this they also recognised that women’s sexual needs were similar to those of men.</p><p>The second half of the thesis studies birth control at the individual level. Through a collection of letters, written by ordinary men and women and sent to the Swedish Association of Sexual Education, individual experiences and attitudes to birth control are analysed. It is concluded that preventive birth control was a male responsibility. Prevention of pregnancy intervened with sexuality and was therefore an area difficult for women to enter. The most commonly used contraceptive methods during the 1930s were withdrawal and condoms – two methods which required male responsibility. The only birth controlling method that did not intervene with sexuality was abortion. This was a traditionally female responsibility and remained within a female sphere throughout the fertility transition.</p><p>When people motivated their decision to apply birth control they referred to either the economic situation of the family, the reproductive health of the mother or the fact that they were not yet married. An overriding motive for the two first was a wish among the correspondents to remain respectable. Having a small family was in itself considered respectable by the end of the fertility transition. Acting responsibly in relation to ones children was another sign of respectability. For fathers this meant being able to support the family financially while mothers’ claim to respectability depended on the time they spent at home, with the children, as well as the appearance of both the children and the home.</p><p>The thesis concludes that the perceptions and experiences of individual men and women are of great importance when the fertility transition is studied. Reproductive decisions were made by individuals, and changes in fertility are therefore the consequence of many people deciding to alter ther sexual life in order to control reproduction. Research on the fertility transition would therefore gain credibility from integrating sources of a more qualitative character into the study.</p>