No description available.

Lutzomyia longipalpis (Lutz & Neiva) is the vector of Leishmania infantum (Nicolle), the aetiological agent of visceral leishmaniasis in the New World. It has been shown by several authors that Lu. longipalpis represents a complex of at least three species. Adults of this species are known to mediate mating and oviposition using pheromones. This study aimed to investigate an aspect of their behaviour that had previously been neglected, namely the responses of female Lu. longipalpis to human kairomones. It was found that females could be lured by volatiles extracted from skin secretions. Pentane and ether extracts were equally effective in attracting female Lu. longipalpis. Whole pentane extracts were further fractionated by column chromatography into a polar fraction (ether-soluble) and a non-polar fraction (pentane-soluble). Testing both fractions for sandfly activity showed that only the pentane-soluble fraction was attractive to Lu. longipalpis. Host odours not only appeared to explain the variation in attraction of human volunteers, but were also found to be potentially responsible for sandfly biting distributions on a host. Female sandflies exhibited a marked biting preference for the ears of a human volunteer. Cross-mating experiments with putative members of the Lu. longipalpis complex, Jacobina (3-methyl-a-himachelene) and Marajo (Cembrene-producing pheromone type), provided direct evidence of prezygotic isolation between the two studied populations (i. e. by examining insemination rates and pheromone production in FI males). This result explains why two coexisting pheromone types are never detected in single male sandfiies collected in the wild. The cross-mating experiments additionally found partial post-zygotic barriers, with significantly reduced eggs production and egg hatching rates in F1 progeny. A series of independent bioassays provided evidence for innate differences in anthropophily between at least two allopatric populations of Lu. longipalpis. The main behavioural differences detected were in (1) the mean time to bite on a human host during a biting selection trial, (2) the behavioural response to ear washing extracts (landings on impregnated filter papers), and (3) the SAQ (Sandfly Activity Quotient) response (landings) to volatlles deposited onto handled glass Petri dishes (for the two most contrasting sandfly populations: Jacobina and Marajo). Finally, preliminary wind-tunnel studies undertaken with golden hamsters infected with Leishmania infantum suggested a change in the overall body odour composition of the host, making it more attractive to female Lu. longipalpis. Gas chromatography analysis of entrained volatile odours from infected and non-infected hamsters showed a large number of peaks in chromatograms from both animals. A total of 10 extra compounds, eluted from 10 to 16 minutes of retention time, were present in samples from infected hamsters, but were absent in those obtained from non-infected hamsters.

No description available.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito da densidade sobre o desempenho e o comportamento de leitões na fase de creche. Um total de 560 leitões desmamados (peso médio de 5,75 ± 0,9 kg e idade média de 20,92 ± 0,8 dias) foram aleatoriamente alojados em quatro tratamentos com diferentes densidades: T0,33, T0,28, T0,23 e T0,18 (0,33, 0,28, 0,23 e 0,18 m²/animal respectivamente). As baias continham 20 animais e a ração foi fornecida à vontade. As lesões de cauda e orelha foram graduadas em escores de 0 a 4 e o número de lesões de briga foram avaliados semanalmente. Dezesseis baias foram filmadas em três momentos (1ª, 4ª e 6ª semana de alojamento) para avaliação da frequência de brigas e de belly nosing. Foi observado um efeito linear da densidade sobre o ganho de peso diário (GPD; P=0,049), um efeito quadrático sobre o peso aos 42 dias (P=0,030) e uma tendência de efeito quadrático para o consumo médio diário (CMD; P=0,075). Não houve efeito da densidade na conversão alimentar (CA) e no coeficiente de variação (CV) do peso aos 42 dias. Foi observado um maior número de leitões apresentando lesões severas de orelha no grupo T0,18 quando comparado ao T0,33 (P = 0,019) e T0,28 (P = 0,056). Um maior número de animais com lesões moderadas ou severas foi observado no grupo T0,18 (P < 0,05) do que nos demais grupos para lesões de orelha, e do que T0,33 para lesões de cauda. Houve um efeito linear da densidade sobre a frequência de brigas, com uma maior ocorrência nos grupos com menos espaço. Contudo, não foi observado efeito sobre o número de lesões de briga ou de casos de belly nosing. Em conclusão, o aumento da densidade afetou negativamente o desempenho dos leitões, além de aumentar a ocorrência de comportamentos indesejáveis. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of space allowance on performance and behavior of nursery pigs. At weaning 560 pigs (5.75 ± 0.9 kg of body weight and 20.92 ± 0.8 days of age) were randomly assigned in four treatments with different stocking densities: T0.33, T0.28, T0.23 and T0.18 (0.33, 0.28, 0.23 and 0.18 m²/pig respectively). Pens were standardized to have the same group size (20 pigs/pen) and feed was provided ad libitum. Tail and ear biting lesions and the fighting lesions were weekly observed. Sixteen pens were videotaped in three different moments (1st, 4th and 6th housing week) and the frequency of fights and belly nosing were recorded. A linear effect was observed of stocking density on average daily gain (ADG; P=0.049), a quadratic effect and a quadratic tendency of effect were observed on body weight at 42 days after weaning and on average daily feed intake (ADFI) (P=0.030; P=0.075, respectively). There was no effect of stocking density on the gain:feed ratio or weight coefficient of variation (CV) at day 42. Higher graduation of severe ear lesions was observed in pigs from T0.18 when compared to T0.33 (P = 0.0196) and T0.28 (P = 0.056). A higher number of pigs with moderate or severe tail and ear lesions was observed in T0.18 (P > 0.05). Moreover, it was observed a linear effect of density on the frequency of fights, with higher occurrence in groups housed in restricted spaces. However, no effect of stocking density was observed on fight lesions or belly nosing among treatments. In conclusion, increased density negatively affected the performance of piglets and increased the occurrence of unsuitable behaviors.

Schwanzbeißen ist eines der gravierendsten Probleme in der konventionellen Schweinehaltung, da es zu einer erheblichen Einschränkung des Tierwohls führt und zudem wirtschaftliche Einbußen nach sich zieht. Eine Prävention von Schwanzbeißen ist äußerst schwierig, da die Ursachen multifaktoriell sind. Viele Risikofaktoren, die Schwanzbeißen auslösen können, sind durch Untersuchungen hinreichend bekannt, aber das fehlende Bewusstsein für das Vorhandensein dieser Risikofaktoren auf den Betrieben erschwert es den Landwirten, eine Veränderung der Situation herbeizuführen. Ein ganzheitlicher Ansatz ist erforderlich, um die vorhandenen Risikofaktoren auf den Betrieben zu identifizieren und für jeden Betrieb ein entsprechendes individuelles Profil mit seinen Stärken und Schwächen zu erstellen. Vor diesem Hintergrund wurde das Schwanzbeiß Interventions Programm (SchwIP) 2011 entwickelt, dem eine betriebsindividuelle Erhebung verbunden mit den Grundsätzen der Planung von Tiergesundheit und Tierwohl (Animal Health and Welfare Planning, AHWP) zu Grunde liegt. SchwIP wurde auf deutschen konventionellen Betrieben mit Mastschweinehaltung angewendet und evaluiert, um Landwirten zu helfen, die Risikofaktoren für Schwanzbeißen zu identifizieren und zu reduzieren, sowie sich der Herausforderung zu stellen, die Gegebenheiten auf den Betrieben zu optimieren. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es zu ergründen: 1) wie eine Management-Anwendung in der Praxis verbreitet werden kann und ob ein Wissenstransfer zu den Anwendern erfolgt, 2) ob die Anwendung von SchwIP bezüglich einer Reduzierung von Risikofaktoren für Schwanzbeißen und einer Verringerung der Prävalenz von Schwanzverletzungen auf den Betrieben effektiv ist und 3) ob sich die Effektivität der Anwendung der Management-Hilfe auch in der Erfassung der Prävalenz von Schwanzverletzungen am Schlachthof widerspiegelt. Es wurden 23 eintägige Schulungen mit 19 Veterinären und 115 landwirtschaftlichen Betriebsberatern durchgeführt, um die Management-Hilfe SchwIP in ganz Deutschland zu verbreiten (Kapitel 4). Die Teilnehmer erlernten die Anwendung von SchwIP in interaktiven Schulungen mit einer Kombination aus theoretischen und praktischen Lehrabschnitten. Die Schulungsgruppen wurden subjektiv, basierend auf der Ausprägung ihrer ablehnenden Einstellung gegenüber Bestandteilen oder der Konzeption von SchwIP einer der folgenden drei Kategorien zugeordnet: hochgradig, mittelmäßig oder geringfügig ablehnend. In den nach der Schulung ausgeteilten Feedback-Bögen bewerteten hochgradig ablehnende Schulungsgruppen die Anwendbarkeit der Managementhilfe auf den Betrieben signifikant schlechter als die anderen beiden Gruppen. Allerdings wurden keine Unterschiede zwischen den Kategorien der Schulungsgruppen hinsichtlich der Benotung des Wissenstransfers in den Feedbackbögen sowie der sich an die Schulungen anschließenden praktischen Anwendungen auf den Betrieben festgestellt. Insgesamt erachteten 67% der Teilnehmer Schulungen als geeignetes Medium für das Erlernen zukünftiger Managementhilfen. Als Schlussfolgerung lässt sich ableiten, dass es erforderlich ist, sich Erfahrungen und Grundkenntnisse im Kommunikationstraining sowie in dem Leiten einer Gruppe anzueignen, bevor Schulungen entwickelt und durchgeführt werden, um auf die unterschiedlichen Einstellungen der Teilnehmenden eingehen zu können. Die Managementhilfe SchwIP wurde auf 188, von Schwanzbeißen betroffenen Betrieben, an jeweils einem Tag zwischen Juni und November im Jahr 2012 und erneut im gleichen Zeitraum im Jahr 2013 angewendet. Die Anwendung erfolgte entweder von einer Wissenschaftlerin der Arbeitsgruppe (68 Betriebe) oder von einem der 68 geschulten Tierärzte bzw. Betriebsberater (120 Betriebe) (Kapitel 5). Die Auswahl der untersuchten Buchten war problemorientiert, das heißt, Buchten wurde Vorrang in der Erhebung gegeben, in denen Schwanzbeißen zum Zeitpunkt des Besuchs vorhanden war oder Buchten, bei denen ein wiederkehrendes Auftreten bekannt war. Insgesamt zeigte sich, dass durch die Anwendung von SchwIP, bezogen auf alle Betriebe, das Gesamtrisiko zwischen den beiden Erhebungen signifikant reduziert werden konnte. Die Landwirte nahmen sich bei jedem Betriebsbesuch Ziele und Maßnahmen vor, unterstützt von dem jeweiligen Anwender und dem generierten SchwIP-Betriebsbericht, um das Risiko für Schwanzbeißen auf ihren Betrieben zu reduzieren. Der Grad der Umsetzung der vorgenommenen Maßnahmen (alle, einige oder keine Maßnahmen umgesetzt) hatte keinen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Veränderung des Gesamtrisikos von Schwanzbeißen. In den verschiedenen Risikokategorien Komfort, Beschäftigung, Futter & Wasser, Gesundheit und Stress konnte kein Unterschied im jeweiligen Gesamtrisiko der Kategorien zwischen den Erhebungen festgestellt werden. Allerdings konnte in der Kategorie Beschäftigung ein Wissenstransfer durch die Anwender und das SchwIP verzeichnet werden, da im Jahr 2013 mehr Betriebe eine Beschäftigung anboten, sowie mehr Betriebe Beschäftigungsmaterial (z. B. Stroh, Heu, etc.) anstelle von Beschäftigungsobjekten (z. B. Kette mit Holzstück) bereitstellten. Darüber hinaus zeigte sich, dass sich die Prävalenz von Schwanzläsionen (Blut am Schwanz, entzündliche Schwellungen des Schwanzes, Teil- oder Vollverlust) und von Ohrläsionen (Blut oder Kruste am Ohr) zwischen den beiden Betriebserhebungen signifikant reduzierte. Begleitend zu den Betriebserhebungen wurde eine Bonitierung der Schwanzläsionen von 32 Betrieben, auf denen das SchwIP angewendet wurde, und von 32 Kontrollbetrieben am Schlachthof durchgeführt (Kapitel 6). Drei Beobachter beurteilten Schwanzläsionen von einer Gesamtstichprobe von 80.034 geschlachteten Schweinen anhand von Fotos, wobei 43.402 Fotos von SchwIP Betrieben im Zeitraum vom 02.07.2012 bis 29.11.2013 bonitiert wurden und 36.632 Fotos von Kontrollbetrieben im Zeitraum vom 22.11.2012 bis 29.11.2013. Die Bonitur erfolgte mit Hilfe einer 4-stufigen Skala (keine / leichte / schwere Verletzung, Nekrose). Zusätzlich wurde beurteilt, ob ein Vollverlust des Schwanzes vorhanden war oder nicht. Für die Auswertung wurden die Verletzungsgrade zusammengefasst zu den Befunden ‘Verletzung‘ und ‘keine Verletzung‘. Verletzungen wurden unabhängig von dem jeweiligen Schweregrad im Durchschnitt bei 25,4 % der Schlachtkörper von Kontrollbetrieben festgestellt, wobei die Mehrzahl der Verletzungen leichte Verletzungen waren (23,6 % der Schlachtkörper). Es wurden weniger Schwanzspitzennekrosen in der routinemäßigen Fleischuntersuchung ermittelt als Nekrosen von Fotos bonitiert wurden. Von insgesamt 548 Schwanzspitzennekrosen wurden nur 17 % übereinstimmend sowohl von Fotos als auch in der routinemäßigen Fleischuntersuchung erfasst, wohingegen 53 % der Nekrosen, die in der routinemäßigen Fleischuntersuchung festgestellt wurden, auch in der Fotobonitur als solche bewertet wurden. Die Prävalenz von Schwanzverletzungen war in der ersten Saison (Winter), in der sowohl von SchwIP- als auch von Kontrollbetrieben Fotos vorhanden waren, im Beobachtungszeitraum signifikant höher bei den SchwIP-Betrieben als bei den Kontrollbetrieben, aber in keiner der folgenden Saisons. Dies weist auf eine Reduzierung durch die Anwendung der Managementhilfe SchwIP hin. Zusammenfassend erwies sich die Kombination von einer betriebsindividuellen Erhebung, entsprechend, den in SchwIP integrierten Grundsätzen der Planung von Tiergesundheit und Tierwohl (AHWP) als erfolgreich. Die Risikofaktoren für Schwanzbeißen auf Betrieben mit bestehender Schwanzbeißproblematik konnten reduziert und die Prävalenz von Schwanzverletzungen, sowohl auf den Betrieben als auch im Schlachthof, gesenkt werden. Schulungen mit Betriebsberatern und Veterinären erwiesen sich zudem als ein sehr effektiver Weg, neue Managementhilfen in der landwirtschaftlichen Praxis zu verbreiten und einen Wissenstransfer von der Wissenschaft in die Beratung und daran anschließend an die Landwirte bereitzustellen.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito da densidade sobre o desempenho e o comportamento de leitões na fase de creche. Um total de 560 leitões desmamados (peso médio de 5,75 ± 0,9 kg e idade média de 20,92 ± 0,8 dias) foram aleatoriamente alojados em quatro tratamentos com diferentes densidades: T0,33, T0,28, T0,23 e T0,18 (0,33, 0,28, 0,23 e 0,18 m²/animal respectivamente). As baias continham 20 animais e a ração foi fornecida à vontade. As lesões de cauda e orelha foram graduadas em escores de 0 a 4 e o número de lesões de briga foram avaliados semanalmente. Dezesseis baias foram filmadas em três momentos (1ª, 4ª e 6ª semana de alojamento) para avaliação da frequência de brigas e de belly nosing. Foi observado um efeito linear da densidade sobre o ganho de peso diário (GPD; P=0,049), um efeito quadrático sobre o peso aos 42 dias (P=0,030) e uma tendência de efeito quadrático para o consumo médio diário (CMD; P=0,075). Não houve efeito da densidade na conversão alimentar (CA) e no coeficiente de variação (CV) do peso aos 42 dias. Foi observado um maior número de leitões apresentando lesões severas de orelha no grupo T0,18 quando comparado ao T0,33 (P = 0,019) e T0,28 (P = 0,056). Um maior número de animais com lesões moderadas ou severas foi observado no grupo T0,18 (P < 0,05) do que nos demais grupos para lesões de orelha, e do que T0,33 para lesões de cauda. Houve um efeito linear da densidade sobre a frequência de brigas, com uma maior ocorrência nos grupos com menos espaço. Contudo, não foi observado efeito sobre o número de lesões de briga ou de casos de belly nosing. Em conclusão, o aumento da densidade afetou negativamente o desempenho dos leitões, além de aumentar a ocorrência de comportamentos indesejáveis. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of space allowance on performance and behavior of nursery pigs. At weaning 560 pigs (5.75 ± 0.9 kg of body weight and 20.92 ± 0.8 days of age) were randomly assigned in four treatments with different stocking densities: T0.33, T0.28, T0.23 and T0.18 (0.33, 0.28, 0.23 and 0.18 m²/pig respectively). Pens were standardized to have the same group size (20 pigs/pen) and feed was provided ad libitum. Tail and ear biting lesions and the fighting lesions were weekly observed. Sixteen pens were videotaped in three different moments (1st, 4th and 6th housing week) and the frequency of fights and belly nosing were recorded. A linear effect was observed of stocking density on average daily gain (ADG; P=0.049), a quadratic effect and a quadratic tendency of effect were observed on body weight at 42 days after weaning and on average daily feed intake (ADFI) (P=0.030; P=0.075, respectively). There was no effect of stocking density on the gain:feed ratio or weight coefficient of variation (CV) at day 42. Higher graduation of severe ear lesions was observed in pigs from T0.18 when compared to T0.33 (P = 0.0196) and T0.28 (P = 0.056). A higher number of pigs with moderate or severe tail and ear lesions was observed in T0.18 (P > 0.05). Moreover, it was observed a linear effect of density on the frequency of fights, with higher occurrence in groups housed in restricted spaces. However, no effect of stocking density was observed on fight lesions or belly nosing among treatments. In conclusion, increased density negatively affected the performance of piglets and increased the occurrence of unsuitable behaviors.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito da densidade sobre o desempenho e o comportamento de leitões na fase de creche. Um total de 560 leitões desmamados (peso médio de 5,75 ± 0,9 kg e idade média de 20,92 ± 0,8 dias) foram aleatoriamente alojados em quatro tratamentos com diferentes densidades: T0,33, T0,28, T0,23 e T0,18 (0,33, 0,28, 0,23 e 0,18 m²/animal respectivamente). As baias continham 20 animais e a ração foi fornecida à vontade. As lesões de cauda e orelha foram graduadas em escores de 0 a 4 e o número de lesões de briga foram avaliados semanalmente. Dezesseis baias foram filmadas em três momentos (1ª, 4ª e 6ª semana de alojamento) para avaliação da frequência de brigas e de belly nosing. Foi observado um efeito linear da densidade sobre o ganho de peso diário (GPD; P=0,049), um efeito quadrático sobre o peso aos 42 dias (P=0,030) e uma tendência de efeito quadrático para o consumo médio diário (CMD; P=0,075). Não houve efeito da densidade na conversão alimentar (CA) e no coeficiente de variação (CV) do peso aos 42 dias. Foi observado um maior número de leitões apresentando lesões severas de orelha no grupo T0,18 quando comparado ao T0,33 (P = 0,019) e T0,28 (P = 0,056). Um maior número de animais com lesões moderadas ou severas foi observado no grupo T0,18 (P < 0,05) do que nos demais grupos para lesões de orelha, e do que T0,33 para lesões de cauda. Houve um efeito linear da densidade sobre a frequência de brigas, com uma maior ocorrência nos grupos com menos espaço. Contudo, não foi observado efeito sobre o número de lesões de briga ou de casos de belly nosing. Em conclusão, o aumento da densidade afetou negativamente o desempenho dos leitões, além de aumentar a ocorrência de comportamentos indesejáveis. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of space allowance on performance and behavior of nursery pigs. At weaning 560 pigs (5.75 ± 0.9 kg of body weight and 20.92 ± 0.8 days of age) were randomly assigned in four treatments with different stocking densities: T0.33, T0.28, T0.23 and T0.18 (0.33, 0.28, 0.23 and 0.18 m²/pig respectively). Pens were standardized to have the same group size (20 pigs/pen) and feed was provided ad libitum. Tail and ear biting lesions and the fighting lesions were weekly observed. Sixteen pens were videotaped in three different moments (1st, 4th and 6th housing week) and the frequency of fights and belly nosing were recorded. A linear effect was observed of stocking density on average daily gain (ADG; P=0.049), a quadratic effect and a quadratic tendency of effect were observed on body weight at 42 days after weaning and on average daily feed intake (ADFI) (P=0.030; P=0.075, respectively). There was no effect of stocking density on the gain:feed ratio or weight coefficient of variation (CV) at day 42. Higher graduation of severe ear lesions was observed in pigs from T0.18 when compared to T0.33 (P = 0.0196) and T0.28 (P = 0.056). A higher number of pigs with moderate or severe tail and ear lesions was observed in T0.18 (P > 0.05). Moreover, it was observed a linear effect of density on the frequency of fights, with higher occurrence in groups housed in restricted spaces. However, no effect of stocking density was observed on fight lesions or belly nosing among treatments. In conclusion, increased density negatively affected the performance of piglets and increased the occurrence of unsuitable behaviors.

A widespread problem in the housing of captive animals is the occurrence and development of abnormal behaviors. In the pig breeding industry the abnormal behaviors causing the biggest welfare problems are stereotypies such as tail-biting, ear-biting, equipment-biting and belly-nosing. In this study a rope and an activation ball were tested as curative treatments to reduce the performance of these stereotypies by inducing the underlying innate behaviors. A total of 141 pigs spread over 18 pens were used as test-subjects. They were divided into three groups which were introduced to one of the two enrichments or no enrichment at all. Both the enrichments contained characteristics which mostly targeted exploratory and foraging needs and, if functional, were thought to mainly have an effect on tail-biting, ear-biting and equipment-biting. The pigs were observed both at initial contact with the enrichments and after having familiarized with them for three days, and the amount of registered enrichment interaction and performed stereotypies were used to evaluate the effect of the enrichment objects. In both enrichment treatments the enrichments occupied the pigs both on day one and after three days. The presence of equipment-biting was successfully reduced on both day one and day three while the presence of tail-biting and ear-biting only were initially reduced. No effect was found on belly-nosing in either enrichment treatment. This suggests that both enrichments are functional over time and efficient in reducing some types of harmful social behaviors. However, belly-nosing would need to be targeted with a different kind of object.

No description available.

Hos grisar finner man flera stereotypiska beteenden, som rörbitning och svansbitning. Dessa beteenden är relativt vanliga hos grisar. En miljöberikning definieras som förbättring av ett djurs välfärd, både psykologisk och fysiologiskt, genom förändringar hos djurets omgivning. Denna studie har undersökt om miljöberikningar kan minska stereotypiska beteenden hos grisar. De två olika miljöberikningar som har använts är en jutesäck fylld med halm och en Jolly Ball™. De tre stereotypiska beteendena som studerades var rörbitning, svansbitning och bukmassage. Studien utfördes på 107st grisar uppdelade på 12 boxar, under totalt tre veckor. Alla tre stereotypiska beteenden minskade statistiskt signifikant . Detta visar att båda miljöberikningarna hade en positiv effekt på grisarna då de minskade deras stereotypiska beteenden. De interagerade mer med jutesäcken fylld med halm än vad det gjorde med Jolly Ball™.  Grisarna föredrog den miljöberikningen som var omformbar, förstörbar, ätbar, tuggbar, vilket går i linje med liknande studier. / Among fattening pigs you find several stereotypical behaviours, such as bar-biting and tail-biting. These behaviours are quite common among domestic pigs. Environmental enrichments are often used to reduce stereotypical behaviours in animals.  An environmental enrichment is defined as an improvement of an animal’s welfare, both psychologically and physiologically, through changes in the environment of the animal. With this study, different environmental enrichments were studied to see if they can reduce stereotypical behaviour among fattening pigs. The two different environmental enrichments used were a jute sack filled with straw and a Jolly Ball™. The stereotypical behaviours that were looked at were bar-biting, tail-biting and belly-nosing. The study was carried out on 107 pigs divided into 12 pig boxes, during 3 weeks in total. All three stereotypical behaviours decreased significantly. This shows that the environmental enrichments had a positive effect on the pigs, since they reduced their stereotypical behaviour. The pigs interacted more with the jute sack than they did with the Jolly Ball™.  The pigs preferred the environmental enrichment that was destructible, edible, deformable and chewable, which fits well into similar studies that have been executed.