4 ABSTRACT Methods for the determination of five isomers of aminonitrophenol were developed, based on the technique of differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and HPLC with amperometric detection. As the working electrodes, boron-doped diamond film electrode (BDDFE) and glassy carvon paste electrode (GCPE) were employed. Preliminary electrode testing was performed by cyclic voltammetry. The methods were aimed to the determination of all five aminonitrophenol isomers in hair dyes and to the determination of 2-amino-4- nitrophenol and 4-amino-2-nitrophenol in body fluids after solid phase extraction. From the voltammetric methods, the one using BDDFE for the cathodic determination in hair dyes exhibits sufficient selectivity. The performance of chromatographic methods was found suitable for the determination of aminonitrophenols in both observed matrices. The applicability of the developed methods was successfully confirmed by the determination of tested analyted in real samples of hair dyes and spiked samples of urine. Preceding measurements are described, dealing with the determination of other oxidizable compounds, containing phenolic or aniline moieties on BDDFE. The obtained results confirm that in some cases, BDDFE shows more resistance to fouling than other carbon-based electrodes, but in most cases, the...

Le dépôt de ZnO sur diamant est actuellement assuré par des méthodes physiques (ALD, sputtering, CVD) coûteuses et complexes à mettre en oeuvre. La réalisation de ces dépôts de ZnO peut également être effectuée via des procédés plus doux tels que le procédé électrochimique qui représente une alternative intéressante car peu coûteux, et facile à mettre en oeuvre. L’électrodépôt de ZnO a été très largement étudié sur divers substrats, notamment pour des applications dans le domaine du photovoltaïque. Toutefois, seule une étude a été réalisée concernant l’électrodépôt de ZnO sur diamant alors que de nombreuses applications découlent de telles structures : dispositifs à ondes acoustiques de surface (SAW), photo-détecteurs UV ou bien biocapteurs. L’objectif de la thèse réside ainsi dans l’étude de l’électrodépôt de ZnO sur substrat diamant dopé bore en se basant sur le procédé mis en évidence par le groupe de Lincot dans les années 1990. Cette technique consiste à réduire, en présence d’ions Zn2+, l’oxygène dissous pour former des hydroxydes et a fortiori ZnO par réaction des hydroxydes et des ions Zn2+.Le diamant étant un substrat complexe en raison notamment de son grand gap (5,4 eV), un important dopage est nécessaire pour pouvoir l’étudier dans le domaine de l’électrochimie. Dans un premier temps, les conditions d’électrodépôt de ZnO sur diamant (température, potentiel électrique) ont été déterminées avant d’envisager l’étude de l’influence de divers paramètres expérimentaux. Par la suite, l’influence de la composition du bain a été étudiée puisque les concentrations et la nature des précurseurs de zinc et de l’électrolyte support ont été étudiées, permettant de former toute une variété de structures de ZnO sur diamant. Enfin, la dernière partie de la thèse s’est focalisé sur l’influence de la chimie de surface du diamant sur la morphologie, la structure et l’adhérence des dépôts de ZnO formés. L’état de surface initialement hydrogéné du diamant a été modifié en utilisant des traitements électrochimiques conduisant à la formation de groupements oxydés. / Currently, ZnO deposition on diamond is obtained by physicals methods (ALD, sputtering, CVD) which are expensive and difficult to implement. The realization of these ZnO deposits can also be made by softer methods such as electrodeposition which represents an interesting alternative because of its low cost. ZnO electrodeposition has been already studied on several substrates especially for photovoltaic devices. However, only one study has been realized concerning ZnO electrodeposition on diamond while many applications derived from these structures: surface acoustic wave sensors, UV photodetectors, and biosensors. The aim of this work is the study of ZnO electrodeposition on boron doped diamond by following the process highlighted by Lincot et al in 1990s. This process is based on the oxygen reduction reaction leading to the formation of hydroxides which react with Zn2+ cations to form ZnO. Diamond is a complex substrate which presents a large gap of 5.4 eV requiring an important doping to allow its use in electrochemistry. At first, ZnO electrodeposition conditions (temperature, electrical potential) have been determined. The influence of deposition bath has then been studied by varying nature and concentrations on zinc precursor and electrolyte support. Results indicate the possibility to obtain different ZnO/diamond structures by varying theses parameters. Finally, the influence of the surface termination of diamond on ZnO structures, shape and adherence has been investigated by modifying the H-terminated surface on O-terminated surface by using electrochemical treatments.

The efficiency of boron-doped diamond electrodes (BDD) has been investigated by electrolysis of an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfate. A Synthesis StarterKit from Condias was used, which contained the BDD anode with an active surface area of 3.14 cm2, and electrosynthesis was performed in a batch mode reactor. In this report, the electrooxidation of sodium sulfate to sodium persulfate is well reported. The production of persulfate was studied at different cell voltages and electrolyte concentrations. The amount of persulfate produced was determined by the iodometric titration and itwas found that its concentration in the electrolyte was directly proportional to the persulfate concentration, i.e, a larger amount of persulfate could be obtained when the electrolyte was highly concentrated, up to 1 M. For each of the samples the amount of persulfate that theoretically is possible to produce was calculated and subsequently compared to the actual amount of persulfate that was formed, ie. current efficiencies. These current efficiencies were unexpectedly low for all experiments except for one data point. Hydrogen gas was also produced as a by-product at the cathode, but it couldn ot be collected in the present setup. The results and some possible improvements are discussed in the report. / Effektiviteten av att använda bor-dopad diamant (BDD) för elektrosyntes med en vattenlösning innehållande natriumsulfat för att producera persulfat har undersökts. Den utrustningen som använde svar ett Syntes StarterKit från företaget Condias, denna innehöll en cell med BDD som anodmaterial vilken hade en aktiv area på 3,14 cm2. Produktionen av persulfat studerades vid olika cellspänningar och elektrolytkoncentrationer. Mängden av producerad persulfat bestämdes genom titrering. Detv isade sig att koncentrationen av elektrolyten var proportionell mot persulfatkoncentrationen, dvs. mer persulfat producerades vid högre elektrolytkoncentrationer. För varje prov beräknades även det teoretiska antalet mol persulfat som kan åstadkommas och jämfördes sedan med det faktiska antalet mol som producerades, detta gav strömeffektiviteten för den önskade reaktionen. Denna effektivitet var oväntat låg för alla prov förutom ett i experiment 4. Vätgas producerades som en biprodukt vid katoden, men på grund av begränsad tillgång till utrustning och tid kunde denna gas inte samlas uppför vidare analys. Resultaten och möjliga förbättringar diskuteras även i rapporten.

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In this work, the use of modified diamond as an electrode material with superlative physical and electrochemical properties was investigated in a number of electrochemical applications. The surface chemistry of three differing forms of diamond, namely boron-doped microcrystalline diamond, boron-doped diamond powder and detonation nanodiamond powder was modified utilising such strategies as hydrogen plasma treatment, reactive ion plasma etching along with various chemical treatments. The surface and functional properties of the modified diamond electrodes were studied using a wide spectrum of techniques. The electrochemical activity of these materials was concomitantly investigated in order to expand the knowledge of diamond electrochemistry and to establish an understanding of how the surface chemistry of these materials impacts their electrochemical performance. In the first study, the nanostructuring strategies of boron-doped diamond surface with platinum nanoparticles were developed. In particular, two types of diamond nanostructures were produced: one consisting of platinum particles located on the top of diamond nanorods, the other with platinum particles located in the bottom of diamond nanopits. For the first time, the experimental evidence proving the mechanism of the diamond nanostructuring process was reported. The electrochemical activity of these nanostructured diamond electrodes with regard to the electrochemical oxidation of glucose and methanol was investigated. In the second study, the relationship between the surface chemistry of three differing forms of diamond, including microcrystalline boron-doped diamond, boron-doped diamond powder as well as detonation nanodiamond powder, and the electrode fouling in the result of the adsorption processes in methyl viologen and anthraquinonedisulfonate solutions was investigated. The influence of two dissimilar surface terminations: hydrophobic H-terminated and hydrophilic O-terminated on the electrode performance was studied in detail. This work provides a useful insight on the likely reasons for the undesirable adsorption occurrence which may be experienced in many electroanalytical applications that utilise solid and powdered forms of diamond. The third project extends the discussion on the study of the diamond electrodes, modified with detonation nanodiamond and boron-doped diamond powders and investigates the electrochemical behaviour of these materials. In this work, charge transport within the diamond powder films, partition coefficients of different redox mediators along with heterogeneous electron transfer constants were identified. The chemical modification of these electrodes with platinum nanoparticles along with the mechanism of nucleation and growth of the latter were studied. The enhanced electrode performance with regard to methanol electrooxidation reaction was demonstrated. The fourth study investigates the preparation of nickel modified boron-doped diamond electrodes and ascertains the relationship between the surface chemistry of the modified diamond and the associated electrocatalytic performance of nickel nanoparticles in hydrogen peroxide and glucose electrooxidation. The fifth study reports on the development of a novel surface functionalization strategy, based on porphyrin and amide coupling chemistry, which allows the creation of hybrid biomimetic diamond interface that was used as the artificial β-alanine receptor.

In this study the possibilities of utilization of boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes for electrochemical reduction of organic compounds and their determination in aqueous media were investigated. For this purpose BDD electrodes have several advantages (relative wide potential window in cathodic region, low sensitivity towards oxygen evolution) but are not frequently used. For the study were selected biologically active organic compounds with typical reducible groups. Vanillin (natural essential oil, synthetic aroma; reducible aromatic aldehyde) is not reducible at BDD electrode. Azidothymidine (antiviral drug; reducible azido group) shows voltammetric signal in Britton -Robinson buffer at pH 6.0 - 8.0, but its analytical utilization is difficult due to the close positioning to the decomposition of the supporting electrolyte. The height and potential of the reduction signal of 5-nitroquinoline (environmental pollutant; reducible nitro group on the aromatic nucleus and at higher potentials reducible heterocycle) is significantly influenced by the boron concentration in BDD film. Reduction of quinoline skeleton is visible in the range of pH6.0 - 11.0 in BR buffer. For differential pulse and DC voltammetry (reduction of nitro group) in BR buffer pH 5.0 limits of detection 0.2 µmol.l-1 and 2.7...

Este trabalho investigou a oxidação eletroquímica do ácido tânico em eletrodos do tipo Ânodo Dimensionalmente Estáveis (ADE) a base de SnO2 e IrO2 e eletrodos de Diamante Dopado com Boro (BDD). As eletrólises foram feitas em modo galvanostático em função de parâmetros como densidade de corrente e concentração de cloreto. A oxidação eletroquímica do ácido tânico foi capaz de promover a diminuição da concentração de fenóis totais, Carbono Orgânico Total (COT) e Demanda Química de oxigênio (DQO). Para os ADE os melhores resultados de remoção de Carbono Orgânico Total (COT) foram nas condições em que se utilizou 300 mg L-1 de cloreto e densidade de corrente de 25 mA cm-2. No entanto houve a formação de compostos organoclorados que não foram degradados com maiores tempo de reação. Para os eletrodos de BDD, obteve-se a remoção de aproximadamente 98% de COT após 10 horas de reação à 75 mA cm-2, na ausência de cloreto. Maiores remoções de COT são obtidas com o aumento da densidade de corrente. Eletrólises na presença de cloreto removeram quase 100% do COT em tempos menores de reação. Análises de compostos organohalogenados (AOX) mostraram que não houve a formação de compostos organoclorados. Menores densidades de corrente apresentaram maiores Eficiência de Corrente (EC) e menor Consumo de Energia (CE). As eletrólises na presença de cloro apresentaram melhores resultados de EC que na ausência do mesmo. A oxidação fotoeletroquímia do ácido tânico em eletrodos do tipo ADE de composição nominal Ti/ Sn0,7 Ir0,3 O2 também foi investigada nesse trabalho. O tratamento fotoeletroquímico foi realizado utilizando uma lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de alta pressão de 125 W como fonte de irradiação. A variação da corrente não mostrou diferença significativa na oxidação do ácido tânico. A variação da concentração de cloreto no eletrólito suporte influenciou de forma acentuada a oxidação do ácido tânico. O tratamento fotoeletroquímico se mostrou mais eficiente na remoção de COT que os tratamentos eletroquímico e fotoquímico. No tratamento fotoeletroquímico ocorreu a formação de AOX no início da reação, no entanto com o passar do tempo esses compostos foram degradados. / This study investigated the electrochemical oxidation of tannic acid on electrodes of the Dimensionally Stable Anode (DSA) type based on SnO2 and IrO2 as well as on boron doped diamond (BDD) electrodes. The electrolyses were performed in the galvanostatic mode, as a function of such parameters as current density and chloride concentration. The electrochemical oxidation of tannic acid was able to promote the reduction of the concentration of total phenolics, total organic carbon (TOC), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). For the DSA the best results of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) removal were achieved at 300 ppm chloride and current density of 25 mA cm-2. However, organochlorine compounds were formed and were not degraded with increased reaction times. For the BDD electrodes, the removal of approximately 98% TOC was obtained after 10 hours of reaction at 75 mA cm-2, in the absence of chloride. Major TOC removals were obtained with increasing current density. Electrolyses in the presence of chloride removed almost 100% TOC in shorter reaction times. Analysis of organohalogen compounds (AOX) showed no formation of organochlorine compounds. Lower current densities led to higher current efficiency (CE) and lower Energy Consumption (EC). The electrolyses in the presence of chlorine produced better CE results than those performed in the absence of chlorine. The photoelectrochemical oxidation of tannic acid in ADE-type electrodes of nominal composition Ti / Sn0.9 Ir0.3 O2 was also investigated in this work. The photoelectrochemical treatment was performed using a high pressure mercury vapor lamp 125 W as the source of irradiation. The variation in current revealed no significant difference in the oxidation of tannic acid. The variation in chloride concentration in the electrolyte markedly influenced the oxidation of tannic acid. The photoelectrochemical treatment was more efficient for TOC removal than the electrochemical and photochemical treatments. Formation of AOX occurred at the beginning of the photoelectrochemical treatment, but over time these compounds were degraded.

Neste trabalho foi estudada a degradação de efluentes de curtume utilizando os processos eletroquímico, fotocatalítico e fotoeletroquímico. Nesses estudos foram utilizados efluentes coletados em uma indústria e soluções preparadas em laboratório que simularam os efluentes reais. No processo eletroquímico, os efeitos do material anódico, da densidade de corrente, da presença de íons sulfato e cloreto, da concentração de cloreto e do pH foram avaliados. Eletrodos do tipo DSA® de diferentes composições, SnO2-Sb2O5 e BDD foram utilizados como ânodo. A oxidação eletroquímica do corante preto ácido 210 utilizando o eletrodo de BDD em soluções tampões de fosfato também foi estudada. A degradação eletroquímica dos efluentes de curtume foi capaz de promover a diminuição da concentração de fenóis totais, do TOC, da COD, da absorbância nas regiões UV-Vis e da toxicidade para Daphnia similis. Maiores concentrações de cloreto resultaram em remoções mais rápidas de fenóis totais, TOC e COD. Apesar disso, a redução da toxicidade do efluente foi menor para maiores concentrações de cloreto, devido à formação de maiores concentrações de AOX. A presença de Na2SO4 dificultou a oxidação das substâncias orgânicas presentes no efluente. Na ausência de cloreto, os melhores resultados foram obtidos quando BDD foi utilizado como ânodo e esses resultados não foram afetados pelo pH. Entretanto, os melhores resultados para a degradação eletroquímica do corante preto ácido 210 foram obtidos em solução alcalina contendo íons fosfato, provavelmente devido à formação de espécies oxidantes a partir desses íons. O tratamento fotocatalítico do efluente de curtume foi realizado utilizando TiO2 P25 da Degussa suportado sobre as paredes do foto-reator. Duas lâmpadas de 15 W, uma de luz negra e a outra germicida, foram utilizadas para avaliar o efeito da fonte de radiação. A lâmpada de luz negra não modificou as características do efluente e os resultados obtidos com a lâmpada germicida na presença e ausência de TiO2 foram equiparáveis. O tratamento fotoeletroquímico foi realizado utilizando uma lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de alta pressão de 125 W como fonte de radiação e um eletrodo de composição nominal Ti/Ru0,30Ti0,70O2 como ânodo. O efeito dos íons sulfato e cloreto sob a eficiência do processo fotoeletroquímico foi avaliado. Os resultados obtidos com o processo eletroquímico na presença de cloreto foram melhores do que aqueles obtidos com o processo fotoeletroquímico na presença de sulfato. Além disso, os resultados alcançados com o processo fotoeletroquímico na presença de NaCl foram melhores do que os alcançados com os processos eletroquímico e fotoquímico aplicados separadamente. / In this work the degradation of tannery wastewaters using electrochemical, photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical processes was studied. Wastewaters collected in an industry and solutions prepared in the laboratory, which simulated real wastewaters, were used in these studies. Effects of the anodic material, current density, presence of sulfate and chloride ions, chloride concentration, and pH on the electrochemical process were evaluated. Different compositions of DSA®-type electrodes, SnO2-Sb2O5 and BDD were employed as anode. The electrochemical oxidation of acid black 210 dye in phosphate buffer solutions was also studied using the BDD electrode. The electrochemical degradation of tannery wastewaters was able to promote the decrease in the concentration of total phenols, TOC, COD, absorbance in the UV-Vis region, and toxicity for Daphnia similis. However, the higher the chloride concentration in the wastewater, the lower the toxicity reduction because of the higher AOX concentration. The presence of Na2SO4 made the oxidation of organic compounds in the wastewater more difficult. In the absence of chloride, the best results were obtained when BDD was used as anode, and these results were not affected by the pH. However, the best results for the electrochemical degradation of acid black 210 dye were reached in alkaline solution containing phosphate ions, which is probably due to the formation of oxidizing species from these ions. The photocatalytic treatment of the tannery wastewater was performed with TiO2 P25 Degussa supported on the photoreactor walls. Two 15 W-lamps, a black light lamp and a germicide lamp, were used to evaluate the effect of the radiation source. The black light lamp did not change the wastewater characteristics, while the results obtained with the germicide lamp in the presence and absence of TiO2 were similar. The photoelectrochemical process was performed using a 125 W high-pressure mercury vapor lamp as radiation source and an electrode of nominal composition Ti/Ru0.30Ti0.70O2 as anode. Effects of sulfate and chloride ions on the efficiency of the photoelectrochemical process were evaluated. The results obtained with the electrochemical process in the presence of chloride were better than those obtained with the photoelectrochemical process in the presence of sulfate. Moreover, the results obtained with the photoelectrochemical process in the presence of chloride were better than those obtained with the electrochemical and photochemical processes applied separately.

Neste trabalho descreve-se o desenvolvimento de procedimentos eletroanalíticos para a determinação de paracetamol, ácido ascórbico (AA) e cafeína em formulações farmacêuticas utilizando um eletrodo de diamante dopado com boro (BDD) e voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV). Inicialmente, foram obtidos os voltamogramas cíclicos para o paracetamol, AA e cafeína separadamente sendo os potenciais de pico anódicos de oxidação de cada um destes analitos iguais a 0,80 V, 0,92 V e 1,47 V, respectivamente. O efeito do pré-tratamento eletroquímico do eletrodo de BDD nas medidas voltamétricas foi também objeto de estudo. Os parâmetros da voltametria de onda quadrada e voltametria de pulso diferencial também foram estudados e otimizados para cada analito. No primeiro procedimento desenvolvido, determinou-se simultaneamente paracetamol e cafeína em formulações farmacêuticas utilizando o eletrodo de BDD e voltametria de pulso diferencial após a otimização das condições experimentais. A curva analítica foi linear no intervalo de concentração de paracetamol e cafeína de 5,0 × 10-7 mol L-1 a 8,3 × 10-5 mol L-1 com limite de detecção iguail a 4,9 × 10-7 mol L-1 para paracetamol e 3,5 × 10-8 mol L-1 para cafeína. O desvio padrão relativo do paracetamol e da cafeína para a repetibilidade intra-dias foi de 0,7 % e 0,2% respectivamente e para a repetibilidade inter-dias foi de 5,1% e 1,4% respectivamente. A quantificação de paracetamol e cafeína em formulações farmacêuticas utilizando um eletrodo de BDD apresentaram resultados concordantes com os resultados obtidos empregando-se um método cromatográfico em um nível de confiança de 95%. Na seqüência, um segundo procedimento foi desenvolvido para a determinação simultânea de AA e cafeína em formulações farmacêuticas utilizando o eletrodo de BDD e voltametria de pulso diferencial, após a otimização das condições experimentais. A curva analítica foi linear num intervalo de concentração de 5,0 × 10-6 mol L-1 a 1,9× 10-4 mol L-1 para AA e de 2,0 × 10-6 mol L-1 a 1,1 × 10-4 mol L-1 para cafeína com limites de detecção de 2,6 × 10-7 mol L-1 para AA e 2,4 × 10-8 mol L-1 para cafeína. O desvio padrão relativo do AA e da cafeína para a repetibilidade intra-dias foi de 0,5% e 0,2% respectivamente e para a repetibilidade inter-dias foi de 5,9% e 8,7% respectivamente. A quantificação de AA e cafeína em formulações farmacêuticas utilizando um eletrodo de BDD apresentaram resultados concordantes com os resultados obtidos empregando-se um método cromatográfico em um nível de confiança de 95%. / In this study the development of eletroanalytical procedures for paracetamol, ascorbic acid (AA) and caffeine in pharmaceutical formulations using a boron doped diamond (BDD) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) is described. Initially, the cyclic voltammograms of paracetamol, AA and caffeine were separately obtained with the potentials of anodic peaks of oxidation of each one of these analytes equals to 0.80 V, 0.92 V and 1.47 V, respectively. The effect of electrochemical pre-treatment of the BDD electrode in voltammetric measurements was the purpose of this study, as well. The parameters of square wave voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry were also studied and optimized for each analyte. In the first developed procedure, it was determined both paracetamol and caffeine in pharmaceutical formulations using the BDD electrode and differential pulse voltammetry after optimization of experimental conditions. The analytical curves were linear in the paracetamol and caffeine concentration intervals, ranging from 5.0 x 10-7 mol L-1 to 8.3 x 10-5 mol L-1 with detection limit equal to 4.9 x 10-7 mol L-1 for paracetamol and 3.5 x 10-8 mol L-1 for caffeine. The relative standard deviation of paracetamol and caffeine for the intra-day repeatability was 0.7% and 0.2% respectively, and the inter-day repeatability was 5.1% and 1.4% respectively. The quantification of paracetamol and caffeine in pharmaceutical formulations using a BDD electrode showed results in agreement with those results obtained using a chromatographic method at a 95% confidence level. Subsequently, a second procedure was developed for the simultaneous determination of AA and caffeine in pharmaceutical formulations using the BDD electrode and differential pulse voltammetry, after optimization of experimental conditions. The analytical curves were linear in the concentrations ranging from 5.0 x 10-6 mol L-1 to 1.9 x 10-4 mol L-1 for AA and 2.0 x 10-6 mol L-1 to 1.0 x 10-4 mol L-1 for caffeine with detection limits of 2.6 x 10-7 mol L-1 for AA and 2.4 x 10-8 mol L-1 for caffeine. The relative standard deviation of AA and caffeine for the intra-day repeatability was 0.5% and 0.2% respectively, and the inter-day repeatability was 5.9% and 8.7% respectively. Quantification of AA and caffeine in pharmaceutical formulations using a BDD electrode showed results in accordance with the results obtained using a chromatographic method at a 95% confidence level.