As questões do ambiente e da natureza como um todo, tais como, preservação, conservação de ecossistemas, florestas, rios, descartes de dejetos líquidos, gasosos e sólidos, a colocação de elementos poluentes no solo, ar e água, são temas de extrema e extensa divulgação e discussão na mídia, na academia e na sociedade como um todo. A preocupação da sociedade, sensibilizada e temerosa por esta questão, uma vez que ela própria tornar-se vítima do processo de degradação do ambiente, é cada vez mais latente. Pessoas e empresas, aos poucos, tornam-se mais conscientes de suas necessidades e exigências de participação no processo de degradação e preservação do meio em que vivemos o que faz com que todos observem com profunda atenção, suas atitudes. As empresas, pressionadas pela mídia e pela sociedade e por uma legislação cada vez mais restritiva, veem-se obrigadas a agir cada vez mais de forma precavida, coerente e preocupada em relação ao ambiente. Assim, elas adotam estratégias empresarias frente às questões ambientais sem que, por outro lado, desconsiderem a sua lucratividade e seus ganhos, essenciais numa lógica empresarial, inserida no contexto do modelo econômico capitalista. Essa pesquisa, visa entender, quais passos e normativas legais as empresas de Shopping Center estabelecidas na cidade de Porto Alegre, no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, mais precisamente o caso do Bourbon Shopping Wallig, necessitou seguir, para a implementação de seu empreendimento. Quais as medidas de mitigação e compensação aos impactos ambientais foram tomadas e baseadas em que normativas ou estudos. A pesquisa visa confirmar, também, se estas medidas tomadas, derivadas de sua implantação no local, desde sua construção - que alterou completamente a paisagem do local - até seus próprios elementos e suas técnicas de construção, seguiram as normas e exigências legais dos instrumentos utilizados para regrar esta obra. Além disso, se avalia quais foram efetivamente seus resultados na prática, analisando no empreendimento após sua conclusão, qual sua eficácia, seus resultados concretos e quais as manifestações que se obtém do mercado, na mídia e da sociedade em geral, frente a esta preocupação e às atitudes consideradas pró-ambientais. / The issues of the environment and nature as a whole, such as preservation, ecosystems conservation, forests , rivers, liquids, gases and solid waste discharges and the placement of polluting elements in the land, air and water are issues of extreme and extensive dissemination and discussion through out the media, at the academy and society as a whole. Because of the population concern about this issue, they are becoming sensitized and fearful about it. They eventually will become victimized by the environmental degradation that has had a latent increase as time goes by. People and companies gradually have become more aware of their participation in the process of environment degradation in which they are living. This is making everyone aware of their attitude towards the environment. Companies have been increasingly pressured by the media and society and more restrictive laws are finding themselves obligated to act very cautious, concerned and consistent about the environment. They are applying business strategies in order to comply with environmental issues without disregarding their profitability and earnings which are essential in the logistic of the capitalist business model. This research aims to understand which steps and legal ways the mall companies and stores established in the town of Porto Alegre , Rio Grande do Sul State, more precisely at the Bourbon Shopping Wallig were needed and followed by this enterprise implementation project. It also aims to understand the mitigation and compensation towards the environmental impact that they have caused, all based upon professional studies. Due to the complete landscape changed during the mall construction, this research also wants to prove if the construction techniques had followed all legal regulations and rules that are required by law. Furthermore , one should consider if the practical results of this enterprise had been achieved after completion. We should also evaluate the efficacy, the real results, media, market manifestations, opinions and in a grand spectrum if the environmental worries had been respected and fulfilled.

After the Seven Years War ended in 1763, Spain undertook fiscal reforms not only to pay for the costs of the conflict but also to improve imperial defenses. New and increased taxes led to colonial resistance. Meanwhile, the British Parliament imposed new taxes on its American subjects. In the British case, fiscal demands drove the Thirteen Colonies out of the empire, whereas in the Spanish colonies, the resistance provoked by the new fiscal policies did not lead to independence. This paper will examine some of the reasons for the different outcomes in British and Spanish America. / Después de que terminó la Guerra de los Siete Años en 1763, España inició una serie de reformas fiscales, que tuvo el propósito no solamente de sufragar el costo del conflicto sino también de mejorar las defensas imperiales. Los nuevos e incre- mentados impuestos causaron la resistencia en el ámbito colonial. El Parlamento británico también impuso nuevas contribuciones sobre sus colonos americanos. En el caso británico, las demandas fiscales resultaron en la Independencia de las Trece Colonias, mientras que, para el Perú, la nueva política fiscal no condujo a la Independencia. Este artículo examina algunas de las razones por las que en ambos procesos se dieron diferentes resultados.

The present work, through a broad historical survey and an analysis of laws on mission administration during the period of domination by the Society of Jesus (1620-1767) and the post-Jesuit period (1768-1801) in the territory occupied by the Guaraní, analyzes the characteristics of two models of organization and administration for the Guaraní population: Jesuit communalism and Bourbon assimilation. Specifically, we reconstruct the ideological bases, the contextual factors and the political objectives inscribed in each model, as well as contrasting them via specific oppositional frames: purity and mestizaje, community and individual, spatial subjection and mobility, and segregation and assimilation. / En el presente trabajo, por medio de un recorrido histórico amplio y del análisis de ordenanzas sobre la administración misional emitidas en el periodo de dominio de la Compañía de Jesús (1620-1767) y en el posjesuita (1768-1801) en el territorio ocupado por los guaraníes, se analizan las características de dos modelos de organización y administración de dicha población: el de comunalización jesuita y el de asimilación borbónica. Específicamente, se reconstruyen las bases ideológicas, los factores contextuales y los objetivos políticos inscritos en ambos modelos, como también se contrasta a estos últimos a partir de ciertos cuadros de oposiciones: pureza y mestizaje, comunidad e individuo, sujeción espacial y movilidad, y segregación y asimilación.

As questões do ambiente e da natureza como um todo, tais como, preservação, conservação de ecossistemas, florestas, rios, descartes de dejetos líquidos, gasosos e sólidos, a colocação de elementos poluentes no solo, ar e água, são temas de extrema e extensa divulgação e discussão na mídia, na academia e na sociedade como um todo. A preocupação da sociedade, sensibilizada e temerosa por esta questão, uma vez que ela própria tornar-se vítima do processo de degradação do ambiente, é cada vez mais latente. Pessoas e empresas, aos poucos, tornam-se mais conscientes de suas necessidades e exigências de participação no processo de degradação e preservação do meio em que vivemos o que faz com que todos observem com profunda atenção, suas atitudes. As empresas, pressionadas pela mídia e pela sociedade e por uma legislação cada vez mais restritiva, veem-se obrigadas a agir cada vez mais de forma precavida, coerente e preocupada em relação ao ambiente. Assim, elas adotam estratégias empresarias frente às questões ambientais sem que, por outro lado, desconsiderem a sua lucratividade e seus ganhos, essenciais numa lógica empresarial, inserida no contexto do modelo econômico capitalista. Essa pesquisa, visa entender, quais passos e normativas legais as empresas de Shopping Center estabelecidas na cidade de Porto Alegre, no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, mais precisamente o caso do Bourbon Shopping Wallig, necessitou seguir, para a implementação de seu empreendimento. Quais as medidas de mitigação e compensação aos impactos ambientais foram tomadas e baseadas em que normativas ou estudos. A pesquisa visa confirmar, também, se estas medidas tomadas, derivadas de sua implantação no local, desde sua construção - que alterou completamente a paisagem do local - até seus próprios elementos e suas técnicas de construção, seguiram as normas e exigências legais dos instrumentos utilizados para regrar esta obra. Além disso, se avalia quais foram efetivamente seus resultados na prática, analisando no empreendimento após sua conclusão, qual sua eficácia, seus resultados concretos e quais as manifestações que se obtém do mercado, na mídia e da sociedade em geral, frente a esta preocupação e às atitudes consideradas pró-ambientais. / The issues of the environment and nature as a whole, such as preservation, ecosystems conservation, forests , rivers, liquids, gases and solid waste discharges and the placement of polluting elements in the land, air and water are issues of extreme and extensive dissemination and discussion through out the media, at the academy and society as a whole. Because of the population concern about this issue, they are becoming sensitized and fearful about it. They eventually will become victimized by the environmental degradation that has had a latent increase as time goes by. People and companies gradually have become more aware of their participation in the process of environment degradation in which they are living. This is making everyone aware of their attitude towards the environment. Companies have been increasingly pressured by the media and society and more restrictive laws are finding themselves obligated to act very cautious, concerned and consistent about the environment. They are applying business strategies in order to comply with environmental issues without disregarding their profitability and earnings which are essential in the logistic of the capitalist business model. This research aims to understand which steps and legal ways the mall companies and stores established in the town of Porto Alegre , Rio Grande do Sul State, more precisely at the Bourbon Shopping Wallig were needed and followed by this enterprise implementation project. It also aims to understand the mitigation and compensation towards the environmental impact that they have caused, all based upon professional studies. Due to the complete landscape changed during the mall construction, this research also wants to prove if the construction techniques had followed all legal regulations and rules that are required by law. Furthermore , one should consider if the practical results of this enterprise had been achieved after completion. We should also evaluate the efficacy, the real results, media, market manifestations, opinions and in a grand spectrum if the environmental worries had been respected and fulfilled.

Ticks are hematophagous ectoparasites capable of transmitting various pathogens, including bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, to vertebrates. In the United States, tick-borne pathogens are responsible for around 95% of arthropod-borne diseases. Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne illness. However, emerging tick-borne viruses such as Bourbon virus (BRBV), Powassan virus (POWV), and Heartland virus (HRTV) can cause more severe health problems, including death and neurological abnormalities. The reports of molecular detection of viral RNA in field-collected ticks and serological evidence in a pilot study of wildlife species suggest the presence of these emerging viruses in Virginia. The presence poses a serious health threat, but the extent of their presence or circulation in Virginia is unknown. The objectives of the research are (1) to determine the evidence of circulation of POWV, HRTV, and BRBV in Virginia through serological assessment of domestic and wild animals in Virginia and (2) estimate transmission parameters and the basic reproduction number underlying tick-borne virus distribution and prevalence via a mathematical model. Here, we discuss the known literature relevant to tick-borne virus emergence; we assessed the presence of specific neutralizing antibodies against POWV, HRTV, and BRBV in wildlife and livestock sera collected from different health planning regions in Virginia. We used a susceptible-infected-susceptible (SIS) ordinary differential equation model to estimate transmission parameters that best describe the disease dynamics of emerging tick-borne viruses in Virginia. In our study, wildlife sera were seropositive against POWV (18%), BRBV (8%), and HRTV (5%). A wide range of different wildlife species were shown to be exposed to each virus examined. Livestock are also exposed to tick-borne viruses, with seroprevalences of 1%, 1.2%, and 8% detected in cattle for POWV, BRBV, and HRTV, respectively. We estimated the transmission rate and basic reproduction number to be 1.57 and 0.645, respectively. In conclusion, there is a widespread circulation of tick-borne viruses in western and northern Virginia within diverse species of animal populations. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Ticks are blood-sucking ectoparasites that can transmit various pathogens, including bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, to humans and other vertebrates. In the United States, tick-borne pathogens are responsible for about 95% of all arthropod-borne disease cases. Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne illness. However, emerging tick-borne viruses such as Bourbon virus (BRBV), Powassan virus (POWV), and Heartland virus (HRTV), can cause more severe health problems, including potentially death or neurological abnormalities. The reports of molecular detection of viral RNA in field-collected ticks and serological evidence in a pilot study of wildlife species suggest the presence of these emerging viruses in Virginia. However, there is a lack of knowledge on the extent of their circulation. Firstly, this study aims to determine the evidence of circulation of POWV, HRTV, and BRBV in Virginia through serological assessment of domestic and wild animals. Secondly, this study aims to estimate transmission parameters and calculate the basic reproduction number of emerging tick-borne viruses. Evidence of prior infection against all three tick-borne viruses was detected in both wild and domestic animal species from the five Virginia health planning regions, with most samples in the study coming from southwestern and northwestern regions. In conclusion, there is a circulation of tick-borne viruses in Virginia, which is a potential threat to the public health.

“Contested legalities in colonial Mexico : Francisco Xavier Gamboa and the defense of Derecho Indiano” explores the legal culture of late colonial Mexico through the lens of Francisco Xavier Gamboa, the most celebrated Mexican jurist of his era. Born in Guadalajara in 1717, Gamboa practiced in the courtrooms of Mexico City, represented the merchants guild of Mexico in Madrid from 1755 to 1764, analyzed mining legislation in the 1761 Comentarios a las Ordenanzas de Minas, and served three decades as an Audiencia judge until 1794. His long career encompassed the most salient features of the legal culture of his time. The central argument of this dissertation is that the legality Gamboa embodied and defended, known to historians as Derecho Indiano, came under attack in the period of the so-called Bourbon Reforms during the reign of Charles III. Led by José de Gálvez, the visitor-general of New Spain in the 1760s and later the secretary of state for the Indies from 1776 to 1787, the crown sought to streamline the legal order in order to root out corruption, restrict local autonomy, and strengthen royal authority. Gamboa and many other experienced officials opposed this effort. They argued that the old legal order, which recognized local customs and guaranteed judicial autonomy, provided the flexibility needed to maintain the Spanish empire in America. This contest in legalities marked the emergence of a centralized state in Spanish America and the moment when the Spanish legal order began to lose its legitimacy in America. / text

This thesis analyzes caciquismo as a temporally and spatially specific type of clientelistic relations in the Restoration Spain (1874 - 1923). First, the analysis primarily focuses on Spanish historiography of caciquismo/clientelism, its development and current situation of research including contemporary reception of the problem. Second, it also deals with the discussion of contemporary manifestations of caciquismo/clientelism in relation to the issues of terminology, corruption and political clientelism in modern Spain. In both cases the researcher sonsiders other important non-Spanish theoretical works. The thesis is based on interdisciplinary approach: besides of a historical perspective, it also brings to the topic view of anthropology, political science and sociology as well. The contribution of this thesis is refuting the concept according to that the contemporary critics (regeneracionists, Generation of '98 and Generation of '14) condemn caciquismo as a wholly negative manifestation of social interaction, which is based on a psychopathological and ethno-geographical perspective destined only to the Spanish nation, the idea, which is attributed to the contemporary critics of the Restoration Spain by the historians of caciquismo. Keywords: Spain - caciquismo - clientelism - patron-client...

Le but de cette thèse est d'examiner les réformes politiques qui sont intervenues sous le règne de Charles III. La chronologie (1765-1787) se confond avec la visite générale de José de Gálvez en Nouvelle Espagne, puis avec sa nomination, en 1776, au secrétariat d’État des Indes. Au cours de cette période furent créées de nouvelles juridictions : une vice-royauté, deux capitaineries générales, trois audiencias et desintendances presque partout aux Indes. Ce moment est unique dans l'histoire de la monarchie espagnole par l'ampleur des réformes adoptées. Mais plus que les réformes elles-mêmes, c'est leur genèse et les moyens mis en œuvre pour les adopter qui ont attiré notre attention. À travers l'étude du réseau de José de Gálvez, nous avons pu observer une véritable politique de prise de contrôle du gouvernement des Indes. Le clientélisme du secrétaire d’État est alors mis au service de ses projets politiques. Ces réformes engagent une fragmentation du superior gobierno et un affaiblissement de l'autorité des vice-rois. Un nouveau système de gouvernement des Indes estalors expérimenté. / This dissertation examines the political reforms under the rule of Charles III and, especially, under José de Gálvez, first, as Visitador General of New Spain and, later, as Secretary of State of the Indies. Between 1765 and 1787, Gálvez undertook several profound changes in the Indies’ government, including the creation of new administrative territories: a viceroyalty, two capitanías generales, three audiencias, and numerous intendencias in almost all the Indies. This period was unique for the Spanish monarchy not only for the large-scale reforms, but also for the means to achieve them, which is the focus of our research. By studying the José de Gálvez’s network, we argued that it succeeded in taking control of the Indies’ government. In fact, the goal of the Secretary of State’s clientelism was to serve his political projects. Furthermore, Gálvez’s reforms caused the fragmentation of the Superior Gobierno and the weakness of viceroys’ authority, which resulted in a new government system in the Indies.

Le caféier Coffea arabica var. Laurina, aussi appelé Bourbon Pointu, est apparu à la Réunion suite à une mutation spontanée de la variété Bourbon. Cette mutation Laurina, monolocus et récessive, a des effets pléiotropiques qui différencie le Bourbon pointu du Bourbon. Au niveau morphologique, elle se caractérise par un nanisme, un port pyramidal et une forme pointue de ses graines. A un niveau moléculaire, la teneur des grains en caféine est fortement réduite. Malgré des caractéristiques agronomiques d'intérêt et d'excellentes qualités organoleptiques, peu d'études sont disponibles sur ce mutant naturel. Ce travail a ainsi pour objectif d'étudier la mutation Laurina et d'en caractériser les effets afin de mieux décrire les cascades de réaction mises en place. Il se base sur la comparaison du Bourbon pointu avec sa variété parente Bourbon. Au niveau morphologique, des mesures de croissance végétative ont permis l'analyse et l'explication de la forme pyramidale du mutant. Au niveau histologique, l'étude de l'apex, centre initiateur des organes de surface, et de différents entre-noeuds de l'axe orthotrope a permis d'expliquer l'origine du nanisme en terme de division et d'élongation cellulaire. Des hypothèses quant à l'action de la mutation Laurina sur certaines hormones ont été émises à partir des résultats d'application de gibbérelline exogène. Ces études macro et microscopiques ont été couplées au niveau moléculaire à la recherche de gènes différentiellement exprimés entre les deux variétés. La comparaison des transcriptomes des deux variétés à un stade précoce post-cotylédonaire avait pour but la recherche de gènes candidats impliqués dans les premières cascades de réactions menant aux effets pléiotropiques observés. Le clonage différentiel basé sur la méthode SSH (Hybridation Suppressive Soustractive) couplé à une étape de tri à haut débit (macro-array) a été appliqué à ces fins. L'ensemble des résultats décrit plus précisément les effets pléiotropiques induits par la mutation Laurina. La description précise des effets pléiotropiques de la mutation ouvre des pistes quant à la caractérisation moléculaire de la mutation à travers une approche gène candidat.

Ayant vécu de 1771 à 1841, Édouard Bignon incarne la génération d’hommes qui a traversé, non sans encombre, la Révolution, le Directoire, le Consulat, l’Empire, la Restauration et la monarchie de Juillet. Sa carrière est le reflet des changements politiques français. Précepteur à la fin de l’Ancien Régime, il s’enrôle dans l’armée en 1793 pour fuir les proscriptions de la Terreur. Sous le Directoire, en 1797, il intègre la carrière diplomatique au sein de laquelle il reste dix-neuf années, jusqu’en 1815 : il y connaît une progression continue, passant du rang de second secrétaire de légation en 1797 à celui de ministre plénipotentiaire en Pologne en 1813. Après avoir participé aux Cent-Jours, il se retire de la vie publique. Deux ans après Waterloo, il est élu député et siège dans les rangs de l’opposition libérale jusqu’à la chute de la monarchie bourbonienne. Indépendamment de ses mandats de députés, il se lance dans une carrière de publiciste et d’historien qui lui assure une notoriété grandissante. En effet, dans son testament, Napoléon Ier lui a commandé une histoire diplomatique de la France à laquelle Bignon s’attelle dès 1821. Divisée en quatorze tomes, cette Histoire de France paraît à partir de 1829. L’année suivante, Bignon participe à la chute de Charles X et devient proche des gouvernements de Louis-Philippe : il est nommé pair de France en 1837, couronnement d’une longue carrière au service de la France. Cette étude biographique, qui embrasse la totalité de sa carrière, entend mettre à l’honneur le parcours d’un diplomate napoléonien à l’envergure secondaire, les activités d’un parlementaire sous la Restauration et la monarchie Juillet, et l’originalité d’un historien de l’Empire. / Born in 1771 and died in 1841, Édouard Bignon embodies the generation who has live, with some trouble, through the French Revolution, the Directory, the Consulate, the First Empire, the Restoration and the July Monarchy. His career reflects all the French political changes. A private tutor, he enlisted in 1793 while trying to avoid being arrested. During the Directory, in 1797, he joined the Foreign Office and stayed in this departement until 1815 : he was constantly promoted, from the position of 2nd secretary in 1797 to minister plenipotentiary in Poland in 1813. As he joined the ranks of Napoleon during The Hundred Days, he had to retire from public life once Louis XVIII came back. Two years after Waterloo, he became a member of Parliament and sat among the liberals until the Bourbons fall. Separately from his political activities, he published several historical books which rose his popularity. In his will, Napoleon asked him to write the diplomatic history of his reign. Begun in 1821, the Histoire de France was issued from 1829 to 1850 and split into 14 volumes. In 1830, he contributed to the July Monarchy’s birth and became one of its support in Parliament : Louis-Philippe rewarded him and appointed him as peer of France in 1837, as a public recognition for his duties. This study which tackles all Bignon’s activities, aims to emphasize a medium scale diplomatic experience, parliamentarian’s occupations during the Restoration and the July Monarchy and Napoleon historian’s originality.