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Gas cells make up a significant proportion of bread’s volume and are responsible for a number of bread’s characteristics, making their size distribution throughout bread an important quality parameter. The number and size of cells affect the texture and volume of bread, the quantity of sauce mopped up, and how bright the bread appears. Gas cells are incorporated into bread dough during mixing and manipulated throughout the breadmaking process to obtain the desired cellular structure. Due to the fragile nature of bread dough, obtaining accurate quantitative data on its cellular structure is challenging. This thesis investigates the cellular structure of bread, as well as assessing the effect of sugar during breadmaking. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), microscopy and X-ray computerised tomography (X-ray CT) have been used throughout research in bread dough to visualise dough’s cellular structure. A non-destructive and non-invasive method giving a high resolution is X-ray CT, in particular when using a synchrotron light source. However, time on a synchrotron beamline is highly competitive, and can require applications more than two years in advance. Running costs of experiments from a synchrotron beamline are also high. This thesis details an alternative X-ray set-up to accurately visualise dough’s cellular structure using a conventional and therefore more easily accessible X-ray source. Three X-ray CT experiments were conducted to investigate dough’s cellular structure throughout mixing, during proving and in different sugar content doughs. The resolution of the scans varied from 7-11 µm. Industrial bread dough mixing is often conducted at a high pressure initially to improve oxygen availability, followed by a period of partial vacuum to favourably manipulate the cell size distribution. Using X-ray CT, dough cell size distribution was measured at different points throughout pressure-vacuum and constant pressure mixing. A simplified population balance model was fitted to the measured cell size distributions and the validity of the assumptions within the simplified model explored. It was shown that the dynamic changes in the cell size distribution within bread dough could be accurately measured during pressure step change mixing with a non-synchrotron X-ray source. Pressure-vacuum mixing was shown to give a finer cell distribution than constant pressure mixing and the observed decrease in cell number density was found to be much more short lived than the decrease in cell size. The model was found to provide a reasonably accurate characterisation of pressure-vacuum mixing. X-ray CT was also used to monitor dough’s changing cellular structure during proving by taking scans every 5 minutes over 145 minutes. Dough voidage increased from 3% to 66%, resulting in a volume increase from 544 mm3 to 1293 mm3. Cell growth was quickest between 40 and 140 minutes, where a steady increase in volume and significant changes in the cell structure occurred. A change in voidage distribution was observed, with greater proportions of gas located in larger cells over time. In addition, over the course of proving cell numbers dropped, a 156-fold increase in mean cell volume occurred, and mean cell Feret shape increased from 1.59 to 1.91. This in-situ method of X-ray imaging of bread dough provides higher resolution images than comparable data from conventional X-ray sources. In addition, the method has proved to be effective in obtaining high resolution and high contrast 3D images of the cellular structure of dough. This technique will help those wanting to investigate cellular changes in the dough dynamically, but without the waiting time and applications that are required with synchrotron X-rays. On investigating the effect of sugar during breadmaking, sugar was found to increase the gas free dough density and dough voidage, change the dough’s rheology, increase its proving time and produce denser bread. Application of a population balance model on the experimental results indicate that the decrease in steady state voidage as the sugar content increases is a result of an increase in disentrainment. This was reflected in the X-ray CT of sugared vs. non-sugared doughs through fewer and smaller cells present in sugared doughs. This is likely to be a result of a weaker dough structure, making cell rupture more likely. The Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP) is used industrially worldwide for the production of bread in less time and using inferior ingredients compared to the traditional bulk fermentation process, making it more cost effective. These results show that simply extending the pressure vacuum mixing used for the production of standard bread loaves in the CBP to sugared doughs should be avoided as aeration of sugared doughs differs to non-sugared doughs. The results suggest that to do so would be detrimental to the product quality.

El texto completo de este trabajo no está disponible en el Repositorio Académico UPC por restricciones de la casa editorial donde ha sido publicado. / The present work proposes a solution for the conditioning of bakery dough with the purpose of reducing costs by replacing manual work with a mechanized system that will be a piston extruder. In the process, the mass will be contained within a 304 stainless steel prismatic matrix with multiple outlet openings for optimization of the production line. The mechanical properties of bread dough were studied for the design of the platform and the estimation of the necessary compression force. A linear actuator was used, which exerts a compression force of 6 kN, which maximum linear speed is 5 mm/s. Validation of results will be carried out through simulated tests with a density mass of 1452.9 kg/m3. The system is composed of a linear actuator that performs the function of an extruder, followed by a pneumatic wire cutter. The process continues with a conveyor belt and ends with the injection of sesame seeds.The fundamental contribution is in the design of the extrusion chamber, since it allows the flow of the mass leaving minimal residue.

Two yeast/E.coli shuttle vector plasmids were studied in 1994, termed pIBIDB and pBP33. According to this study, each plasmid should contain at least one ADH2UAS (upstream activation sequence in the alcohol dehydrogenase 2 gene) insert. In the present study, the constructed plasmids were analysed and transformed into laboratory strain yeast. The aim of this project was to identify the orientation, quantity and quality of the insert in the selected plasmids. Methods such as restriction analysis, polymerase chained reaction (PCR), sequencing, plate assays and enzyme assays were used to identify and evaluate the novel inserts. The data presented in this thesis suggest the inserted ADH2UAS fragment did enhance the production of maltose permease and maltase when the transformants were cultivated in maltose and ethanol-glycerol medium. The results suggested that transformants containing two inserts of ADH2UAS had a greater influence on the transformants than a single insert. But the inserts within the vectors and in transformed laboratory stain yeast appeared unstable. This could be due to the method used for plasmid construction and the storage condition of the transformants / Master of Science (Hons)

O pão produzido de massa congelada tem sido aprimorado pelos avanços tecnológicos e diferentes formulações, porém ainda apresenta problemas como fermentação prolongada, baixo volume, textura e desempenho variados. O efeito do congelamento pode ser minimizado através do uso de aditivos e ingredientes adequados para a elaboração da massa. Entretanto o mecanismo de fortalecimento devido aos aditivos como, por exemplo, o emulsificante não é completamente conhecido. A análise térmica é uma ferramenta útil para pesquisa, desenvolvimento e controle de qualidade de alimentos, pois permite o estudo das alterações na sua estrutura durante um tratamento térmico. O objetivo do trabalho foi estudar a influência do uso de aditivos de panificação sobre o comportamento da massa de pão francês após ciclos de congelamento e descongelamento. O trabalho experimental foi dividido em quatro etapas: na primeira, diferentes formulações foram produzidas com os componentes estearoil-2-lactil lactato de cálcio (CSL), polisorbato 80 (PS80) e gordura vegetal hidrogenada (GVH); na segunda etapa foi realizado um projeto de mistura com três componentes (CSL, PS80 e ésteres de ácido diacetil tartárico de mono e diglicerídio - DATEM); na terceira foi estudada a influência do ácido ascórbico sobre as características reológicas e os eventos determinados através de Calorimetria Exploratória Diferencial (DSC) afim de otimizar o uso destes aditivos em massas congeladas. A análise térmica mostrou-se adequada aos eventos de congelamento e descongelamento, porém não em relação aos eventos relativos aos aquecimentos. A resistência à extensão bem como a extensibilidade da massa foram influenciadas pelo tempo de armazenamento congelado. Na quarta etapa do projeto, foram produzidos pães franceses à partir de massas com a mistura (0,3 % de PS80 e 0,2 % de DATEM sobre a farinha de trigo) e dois níveis de ácido ascórbico (0 e 200 ppm). Volume específico, perfil de textura, conteúdo de água e medida da produção de gás e tolerância da massa durante a fermentação foram determinados. Os pães produzidos com a adição de ácido ascórbico apresentaram maiores volumes específicos e menores valores para os parâmetros de textura dos pães (firmeza, elasticidade, coesividade e mastigabilidade). / Bread produced from frozen dough has been improved due to technological advances and formulation, however it still presents problems like long proofing, low specific volume, varied texture and performance. The effect of freezing can be minimized by use of additives and adequate ingredients. The mechanism of dough strengthening due to use of additives, such as emulsifiers, is not fully understood. Thermal analysis is a useful tool for food research, development and quality control, because it provides information on food structural changes during thermal treatment. The goal of this research is to study the influence of additives in bread making on French bread dough after a freeze-thaw cycles. The experimental part consists of four parts: in the first, different formulations were produced with the components calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate (CSL), polysorbate 80 (PS80) and vegetable shortening (VGH); in the second, a mixture design with three components (CSL, PS80 and diacetyl tartaric esters of mono and digliceride – DATEM) was made; in the third, influence of ascorbic acid was studied on rheological measurement and events determined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to optimize the use of additives on frozen dough. Thermal analysis was adequate for the freeze-thaw events, however not for the heating events. Resistance to extension and dough extensibility were influenced by storage time. In the fourth part, French breads from frozen dough were produced with the mixture (0,3 % of PS80 and 0,2 % of DATEM in flour basis) and two levels of ascorbic acid. Specific volume, texture profile, water content, gas production and mass tolerance during proofing were determined. Breads made with ascorbic acid addition presented a higher specific volume and lower values for texture profile (firmness, springiness, cohesiveness and chewiness).

O pão produzido de massa congelada tem sido aprimorado pelos avanços tecnológicos e diferentes formulações, porém ainda apresenta problemas como fermentação prolongada, baixo volume, textura e desempenho variados. O efeito do congelamento pode ser minimizado através do uso de aditivos e ingredientes adequados para a elaboração da massa. Entretanto o mecanismo de fortalecimento devido aos aditivos como, por exemplo, o emulsificante não é completamente conhecido. A análise térmica é uma ferramenta útil para pesquisa, desenvolvimento e controle de qualidade de alimentos, pois permite o estudo das alterações na sua estrutura durante um tratamento térmico. O objetivo do trabalho foi estudar a influência do uso de aditivos de panificação sobre o comportamento da massa de pão francês após ciclos de congelamento e descongelamento. O trabalho experimental foi dividido em quatro etapas: na primeira, diferentes formulações foram produzidas com os componentes estearoil-2-lactil lactato de cálcio (CSL), polisorbato 80 (PS80) e gordura vegetal hidrogenada (GVH); na segunda etapa foi realizado um projeto de mistura com três componentes (CSL, PS80 e ésteres de ácido diacetil tartárico de mono e diglicerídio - DATEM); na terceira foi estudada a influência do ácido ascórbico sobre as características reológicas e os eventos determinados através de Calorimetria Exploratória Diferencial (DSC) afim de otimizar o uso destes aditivos em massas congeladas. A análise térmica mostrou-se adequada aos eventos de congelamento e descongelamento, porém não em relação aos eventos relativos aos aquecimentos. A resistência à extensão bem como a extensibilidade da massa foram influenciadas pelo tempo de armazenamento congelado. Na quarta etapa do projeto, foram produzidos pães franceses à partir de massas com a mistura (0,3 % de PS80 e 0,2 % de DATEM sobre a farinha de trigo) e dois níveis de ácido ascórbico (0 e 200 ppm). Volume específico, perfil de textura, conteúdo de água e medida da produção de gás e tolerância da massa durante a fermentação foram determinados. Os pães produzidos com a adição de ácido ascórbico apresentaram maiores volumes específicos e menores valores para os parâmetros de textura dos pães (firmeza, elasticidade, coesividade e mastigabilidade). / Bread produced from frozen dough has been improved due to technological advances and formulation, however it still presents problems like long proofing, low specific volume, varied texture and performance. The effect of freezing can be minimized by use of additives and adequate ingredients. The mechanism of dough strengthening due to use of additives, such as emulsifiers, is not fully understood. Thermal analysis is a useful tool for food research, development and quality control, because it provides information on food structural changes during thermal treatment. The goal of this research is to study the influence of additives in bread making on French bread dough after a freeze-thaw cycles. The experimental part consists of four parts: in the first, different formulations were produced with the components calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate (CSL), polysorbate 80 (PS80) and vegetable shortening (VGH); in the second, a mixture design with three components (CSL, PS80 and diacetyl tartaric esters of mono and digliceride – DATEM) was made; in the third, influence of ascorbic acid was studied on rheological measurement and events determined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to optimize the use of additives on frozen dough. Thermal analysis was adequate for the freeze-thaw events, however not for the heating events. Resistance to extension and dough extensibility were influenced by storage time. In the fourth part, French breads from frozen dough were produced with the mixture (0,3 % of PS80 and 0,2 % of DATEM in flour basis) and two levels of ascorbic acid. Specific volume, texture profile, water content, gas production and mass tolerance during proofing were determined. Breads made with ascorbic acid addition presented a higher specific volume and lower values for texture profile (firmness, springiness, cohesiveness and chewiness).

O conhecimento de propriedades termofísicas é importante na modelagem, na otimização e no projeto de equipamentos para processos como a fabricação de massa de pão congelada. Neste trabalho, as propriedades termofísicas condutividade térmica, difusividade térmica e calor específico foram determinadas experimentalmente ao longo do processo de congelamento da massa de pão, pois influenciam diretamente a cinética do processo que, por sua vez, determina a qualidade do pão produzido. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que algumas destas propriedades variaram em função do conteúdo inicial de água e principalmente devido à mudança da temperatura. O valor médio encontrado através da atividade de água das massas (aw = 0,950), para temperatura inicial de congelamento, pode explicar alguns desvios no ajuste dos dados experimentais a modelos disponíveis na literatura baseados na lei de Raoult, que são estritamente relacionados à fração de gelo formada. O uso combinado de goma guar e xantana reduziu a entalpia de fusão ao longo do tempo de armazenamento congelado (87,4 J.g-1 e 81,2 J.g-1 para a formulação sem gomas, não congelada e após 28 dias de armazenamento congelado; 84,4 J.g-1 e 76,9 J.g-1 para a formulação com 0,25% de goma guar e 0,25% de goma xantana na massa não congelada e após 28 dias de armazenamento congelado), indicando uma interação entre as gomas na capacidade de ligar água ao longo do tempo de congelamento. Porém, apesar do tempo de congelamento ter reduzido a entalpia de fusão, o processo de congelamento foi o principal fator na queda da taxa de fermentação e da produção de gás pelas leveduras independentemente do tempo de armazenamento congelado. / The knowledge of thermophysical properties is important to model and optimize equipment design for frozen food processes. In this work, the thermophysical bread dough properties, such as, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat were experimentally determined during freezing process, due to their influence on the kinetics process, and therefore on bread quality. The results showed that some properties varied according to the initial water content and mainly due to temperature changes. The average value of initial freezing temperature found by water activity (aw = 0.950) explains the deviations between experimental data and available models in the literature based on Raoults law, which is related to the ice mass fraction. The combined use of guar and xanthan gums reduced the fusion enthalpy along frozen storage time (87.4 J.g-1 and 81.2 J.g-1 for formulation without gum, non-frozen and after 28 frozen storage days; 84.4 J.g-1 and 76.9 J.g-1 for formulation with 0.25 % of guar gum and 0.25 % of xanthan gum in non-frozen and after 28 frozen storage days). It indicated the interaction between gums and their ability to hold water along frozen storage. Despite frozen storage reduced the fusion enthalpy, the freezing process itself was the main factor in the decrease in proofing rate and gas production by yeast cells.

A qualidade global da massa de pão congelada por um longo período é um desafio para indústria de panificação. O uso de diferentes técnicas pode ajudar a explicar os danos sofridos à massa de pão durante o congelamento e armazenamento congelado. A presença de água na forma de cristais de gelo foi vista como a principal causa de defeitos à estrutura da massa. Gomas guar e xantana foram incorporadas às massas para contornar os danos causados pelo congelamento. Das análises térmicas conduzidas em calorímetro de varredura diferencial foi possível quantificar a quantidade de gelo presente na massa. A adição de (0,125 a 0,250) g/100g de goma guar e de (0,214 e 0,250) g/100g de goma xantana diminuíram os valores de entalpia na massa ao longo do armazenamento congelado. A fração de gelo foi menor e mais estável nas massas contendo (0,125 e 0,250) g/100g de goma guar ou xantana. O valor da atividade de água diminuiu nas massas contendo goma guar e com níveis mais altos de goma xantana, após o ciclo de congelamento e descongelamento e 170 dias de armazenamento. Alterações na estrutura das massas foram medidas e visualizadas pela análise de textura e por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). Adição de goma xantana e principalmente de goma guar às massas aumentaram a resistência à extensão após 170 dias de armazenamento congelado. A extensibilidade não foi influenciada pela adição de gomas e manteve estabilidade nos períodos de armazenamento estudados. A MEV ajudou a explicar os danos causados à rede de glúten pelos cristais de gelo ao longo do armazenamento congelado. A massa sem gomas apareceu com pequenos danos na rede de glúten com 21 dias de armazenamento e estes danos aumentaram progressivamente por até 170 dias, mostrando um glúten menos contínuo, mais rompido e separado dos grânulos de amido. As massas contendo gomas minimizaram, mas não evitaram os danos causados ao longo do armazenamento congelado. / The global quality of the frozen bread dough for long periods of frozen storage is the challenge to bakery industry. The use of different techniques could help to explain the damages caused in the frozen dough during the freezing and along frozen storage time. The presence of water as ice crystals was the main cause of damage on the dough structure. In order to minimize the freezing damages, guar and xanthan gums were incorporated in the dough. From thermal analysis by DSC technique, the amount of ice present in the dough was determined. The addition of (0.125 to 0.250) g/100g guar gum and (0.214 and 0.250) g/100g xanthan gum presented lower values of fusion enthalpy. The addition of (0.125 and 0.250) g/100g of guar gum decreased or stabilized the frozen water content, suggesting minimal damage on the dough structure along frozen storage time. The water activity in the dough samples with guar gum and higher quantities of xanthan gum decreased after the freezing-thawed cycle and after a period of frozen storage of 170 days. The incorporation of xanthan gum and mainly the incorporation of guar gum increased the maximum resistance of the dough after 170 days. The extensibility was not affected by addition of gums along frozen storage time. The MEV technical helped to explain the damaged dough structure caused by ice crystals along frozen storage time. Dough samples without gums presented structure damage only after 21 days and increased after 170 days, resulting in less continuous gluten, more disrupted and separated from starch granules. The doughs with gums suffered less damage in the gluten matrix, but did not avoid the problems caused by frozen storage.

A qualidade global da massa de pão congelada por um longo período é um desafio para indústria de panificação. O uso de diferentes técnicas pode ajudar a explicar os danos sofridos à massa de pão durante o congelamento e armazenamento congelado. A presença de água na forma de cristais de gelo foi vista como a principal causa de defeitos à estrutura da massa. Gomas guar e xantana foram incorporadas às massas para contornar os danos causados pelo congelamento. Das análises térmicas conduzidas em calorímetro de varredura diferencial foi possível quantificar a quantidade de gelo presente na massa. A adição de (0,125 a 0,250) g/100g de goma guar e de (0,214 e 0,250) g/100g de goma xantana diminuíram os valores de entalpia na massa ao longo do armazenamento congelado. A fração de gelo foi menor e mais estável nas massas contendo (0,125 e 0,250) g/100g de goma guar ou xantana. O valor da atividade de água diminuiu nas massas contendo goma guar e com níveis mais altos de goma xantana, após o ciclo de congelamento e descongelamento e 170 dias de armazenamento. Alterações na estrutura das massas foram medidas e visualizadas pela análise de textura e por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). Adição de goma xantana e principalmente de goma guar às massas aumentaram a resistência à extensão após 170 dias de armazenamento congelado. A extensibilidade não foi influenciada pela adição de gomas e manteve estabilidade nos períodos de armazenamento estudados. A MEV ajudou a explicar os danos causados à rede de glúten pelos cristais de gelo ao longo do armazenamento congelado. A massa sem gomas apareceu com pequenos danos na rede de glúten com 21 dias de armazenamento e estes danos aumentaram progressivamente por até 170 dias, mostrando um glúten menos contínuo, mais rompido e separado dos grânulos de amido. As massas contendo gomas minimizaram, mas não evitaram os danos causados ao longo do armazenamento congelado. / The global quality of the frozen bread dough for long periods of frozen storage is the challenge to bakery industry. The use of different techniques could help to explain the damages caused in the frozen dough during the freezing and along frozen storage time. The presence of water as ice crystals was the main cause of damage on the dough structure. In order to minimize the freezing damages, guar and xanthan gums were incorporated in the dough. From thermal analysis by DSC technique, the amount of ice present in the dough was determined. The addition of (0.125 to 0.250) g/100g guar gum and (0.214 and 0.250) g/100g xanthan gum presented lower values of fusion enthalpy. The addition of (0.125 and 0.250) g/100g of guar gum decreased or stabilized the frozen water content, suggesting minimal damage on the dough structure along frozen storage time. The water activity in the dough samples with guar gum and higher quantities of xanthan gum decreased after the freezing-thawed cycle and after a period of frozen storage of 170 days. The incorporation of xanthan gum and mainly the incorporation of guar gum increased the maximum resistance of the dough after 170 days. The extensibility was not affected by addition of gums along frozen storage time. The MEV technical helped to explain the damaged dough structure caused by ice crystals along frozen storage time. Dough samples without gums presented structure damage only after 21 days and increased after 170 days, resulting in less continuous gluten, more disrupted and separated from starch granules. The doughs with gums suffered less damage in the gluten matrix, but did not avoid the problems caused by frozen storage.

O conhecimento de propriedades termofísicas é importante na modelagem, na otimização e no projeto de equipamentos para processos como a fabricação de massa de pão congelada. Neste trabalho, as propriedades termofísicas condutividade térmica, difusividade térmica e calor específico foram determinadas experimentalmente ao longo do processo de congelamento da massa de pão, pois influenciam diretamente a cinética do processo que, por sua vez, determina a qualidade do pão produzido. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que algumas destas propriedades variaram em função do conteúdo inicial de água e principalmente devido à mudança da temperatura. O valor médio encontrado através da atividade de água das massas (aw = 0,950), para temperatura inicial de congelamento, pode explicar alguns desvios no ajuste dos dados experimentais a modelos disponíveis na literatura baseados na lei de Raoult, que são estritamente relacionados à fração de gelo formada. O uso combinado de goma guar e xantana reduziu a entalpia de fusão ao longo do tempo de armazenamento congelado (87,4 J.g-1 e 81,2 J.g-1 para a formulação sem gomas, não congelada e após 28 dias de armazenamento congelado; 84,4 J.g-1 e 76,9 J.g-1 para a formulação com 0,25% de goma guar e 0,25% de goma xantana na massa não congelada e após 28 dias de armazenamento congelado), indicando uma interação entre as gomas na capacidade de ligar água ao longo do tempo de congelamento. Porém, apesar do tempo de congelamento ter reduzido a entalpia de fusão, o processo de congelamento foi o principal fator na queda da taxa de fermentação e da produção de gás pelas leveduras independentemente do tempo de armazenamento congelado. / The knowledge of thermophysical properties is important to model and optimize equipment design for frozen food processes. In this work, the thermophysical bread dough properties, such as, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat were experimentally determined during freezing process, due to their influence on the kinetics process, and therefore on bread quality. The results showed that some properties varied according to the initial water content and mainly due to temperature changes. The average value of initial freezing temperature found by water activity (aw = 0.950) explains the deviations between experimental data and available models in the literature based on Raoults law, which is related to the ice mass fraction. The combined use of guar and xanthan gums reduced the fusion enthalpy along frozen storage time (87.4 J.g-1 and 81.2 J.g-1 for formulation without gum, non-frozen and after 28 frozen storage days; 84.4 J.g-1 and 76.9 J.g-1 for formulation with 0.25 % of guar gum and 0.25 % of xanthan gum in non-frozen and after 28 frozen storage days). It indicated the interaction between gums and their ability to hold water along frozen storage. Despite frozen storage reduced the fusion enthalpy, the freezing process itself was the main factor in the decrease in proofing rate and gas production by yeast cells.