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In anthropology, elemental analysis of bone and teeth can provide significant details about an individual’s life history, such as diet, toxicity exposure, residency, and migration patterns. Intra-individual comparisons can help to gather information about a single individual’s life, while inter-individual comparisons can help illustrate a community’s life history during these periods. However, current methods of elemental analysis commonly involve the destruction of skeletal samples, which can damage a collection’s integrity and be perceived as disrespectful by descendant communities. Preliminary research has validated handheld x-ray fluorescence spectrometry (HHXRF) as an accurate and reliable method of analysis appropriate for determining the elemental composition of archaeological bone and teeth. In this study, teeth from 16 individuals (N=16) from the pre-conquest Classic Period (AD 625-1100) Maya site of Altun Ha, Belize, were analyzed using HHXRF to identify trace elements to gain a better understanding of the lives of the individuals and community. This study expands upon preliminary research by increasing the sample size and utilizes a filter to increase sensitivity to elements of interest. Diet and mobility were assessed using calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), and bromine (Br) ratios. Net photon counts per element of interest were extracted and converted into ratios. An inter- and intra-individual comparison model was used. Results of calculated Sr/Ca ratios show a general increased reliance on marine subsistence sources within the sample. Shifts that do not align with this trend are present in several individuals, indicating social complexity of Altun Ha. Results of Br/Ca ratios are less clear in regard to diet and warrant further investigation.

Cintiladores inorgânicos com tempo de decaimento de luminescência rápido, densidade alta e boa produção de luz têm sido objeto de estudos para aplicações em física nuclear, física de energias altas, tomografia nuclear e outros campos da ciência e da engenharia. Cristais de cintilação baseados em iodeto de césio (Csl) são materiais que apresentam higroscopia relativamente baixa, número atômico alto, fácil manuseio e custo baixo, características que favorecem o seu uso como detectores de radiação. Neste trabalho descreve-se a obtenção de cristais Csl puro, Csl:Br e Csl:Pb, utilizando-se a técnica de Bridgman. A concentração do elemento dopante bromo (Br) foi estudada no intervalo de 1,5x10-1 M a 10-2 M e o elemento chumbo (Pb) no intervalo de 10-2 M a 5x10-4 M. Para avaliar os cintiladores desenvolvidos foram efetuadas medidas sistemáticas de emissão de luminescência e tempo de decaimento de luminescência para a radiação gama, ensaios de transmitância óptica, ensaios de microdureza Vickers, determinações da distribuição dos dopantes ao longo dos cristais crescidos e análise da resposta dos cristais à radiação gama no intervalo de energia de 350 keV a 1330 keV e partículas alfa provenientes de fonte de 241Am com energia de 5,54 MeV. Os resultados obtidos de tempo de decaimento de luminescência para os cristais CsI:Br e CsI:Pb, no intervalo de 13 ns a 19 ns, mostraram-se promissores para medidas de alta energia. O estudo de microdureza mostrou um aumento significativo em função da concentração dos elementos dopantes, quando comparado ao cristal Csl puro, melhorando desta forma a resistência mecânica dos cristais crescidos. A validade de utilização desses cristais como sensores de radiação para medidas de radiação gama e partículas alfa, pode ser demonstrada pelos resultados da resposta à radiação. / Inorganic scintillators with fast luminescence decay time, high density and high light output have been the object of studies for application in nuclear physics, high energy physics, nuclear tomography and other fields of science and engineering. Scintillation crystals based on cesium iodide (CsI) are matters with relatively low higroscopy, high atomic number, easy handling and low cost, characteristics that favor their use as radiation detectors. In this work, the growth of pure CsI crystals, CsI:Br and CsI:Pb, using the Bridgman technique, is described. The concentration of the bromine doping element (Br) was studied in the range of 1,5x10-1 M to 10-2 M and the lead (Pb) in the range of 10-2 M to 5x10-4 M. To evaluate the scintillators developed, systematic measurements were carried out for luminescence emission and luminescence decay time for gamma radiation, optical transmittance assays, Vickers micro-hardness assays, determination of the doping elements distribution along the grown crystals and analysis of crystals response to the gamma radiation in the energy range of 350 keV to 1330 keV and alpha particles from a 241Am source, with energy of 5.54 MeV. It was obtained 13 ns to 19 ns for luminescence decay time for CsI:Br and CsI:Pb crystals. These results were very promising. The results obtained for micro-hardness showed a significant increase in function of the doping elements concentration, when compared to the pure CsI crystal, increasing consequently the mechanical resistance of the grown crystals. The validity of using these crystals as radiation sensors may be seen from the results of their response to gamma radiation and alpha particles.

Cintiladores inorgânicos com tempo de decaimento de luminescência rápido, densidade alta e boa produção de luz têm sido objeto de estudos para aplicações em física nuclear, física de energias altas, tomografia nuclear e outros campos da ciência e da engenharia. Cristais de cintilação baseados em iodeto de césio (Csl) são materiais que apresentam higroscopia relativamente baixa, número atômico alto, fácil manuseio e custo baixo, características que favorecem o seu uso como detectores de radiação. Neste trabalho descreve-se a obtenção de cristais Csl puro, Csl:Br e Csl:Pb, utilizando-se a técnica de Bridgman. A concentração do elemento dopante bromo (Br) foi estudada no intervalo de 1,5x10-1 M a 10-2 M e o elemento chumbo (Pb) no intervalo de 10-2 M a 5x10-4 M. Para avaliar os cintiladores desenvolvidos foram efetuadas medidas sistemáticas de emissão de luminescência e tempo de decaimento de luminescência para a radiação gama, ensaios de transmitância óptica, ensaios de microdureza Vickers, determinações da distribuição dos dopantes ao longo dos cristais crescidos e análise da resposta dos cristais à radiação gama no intervalo de energia de 350 keV a 1330 keV e partículas alfa provenientes de fonte de 241Am com energia de 5,54 MeV. Os resultados obtidos de tempo de decaimento de luminescência para os cristais CsI:Br e CsI:Pb, no intervalo de 13 ns a 19 ns, mostraram-se promissores para medidas de alta energia. O estudo de microdureza mostrou um aumento significativo em função da concentração dos elementos dopantes, quando comparado ao cristal Csl puro, melhorando desta forma a resistência mecânica dos cristais crescidos. A validade de utilização desses cristais como sensores de radiação para medidas de radiação gama e partículas alfa, pode ser demonstrada pelos resultados da resposta à radiação. / Inorganic scintillators with fast luminescence decay time, high density and high light output have been the object of studies for application in nuclear physics, high energy physics, nuclear tomography and other fields of science and engineering. Scintillation crystals based on cesium iodide (CsI) are matters with relatively low higroscopy, high atomic number, easy handling and low cost, characteristics that favor their use as radiation detectors. In this work, the growth of pure CsI crystals, CsI:Br and CsI:Pb, using the Bridgman technique, is described. The concentration of the bromine doping element (Br) was studied in the range of 1,5x10-1 M to 10-2 M and the lead (Pb) in the range of 10-2 M to 5x10-4 M. To evaluate the scintillators developed, systematic measurements were carried out for luminescence emission and luminescence decay time for gamma radiation, optical transmittance assays, Vickers micro-hardness assays, determination of the doping elements distribution along the grown crystals and analysis of crystals response to the gamma radiation in the energy range of 350 keV to 1330 keV and alpha particles from a 241Am source, with energy of 5.54 MeV. It was obtained 13 ns to 19 ns for luminescence decay time for CsI:Br and CsI:Pb crystals. These results were very promising. The results obtained for micro-hardness showed a significant increase in function of the doping elements concentration, when compared to the pure CsI crystal, increasing consequently the mechanical resistance of the grown crystals. The validity of using these crystals as radiation sensors may be seen from the results of their response to gamma radiation and alpha particles.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:51:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:06:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Tese (Doutoramento) / IPEN/T / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:51:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:06:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Cintiladores inorgânicos com tempo de decaimento de luminescência rápido, densidade alta e boa produção de luz têm sido objeto de estudos para aplicações em física nuclear, física de energias altas, tomografia nuclear e outros campos da ciência e da engenharia. Cristais de cintilação baseados em iodeto de césio (Csl) são materiais que apresentam higroscopia relativamente baixa, número atômico alto, fácil manuseio e custo baixo, características que favorecem o seu uso como detectores de radiação. Neste trabalho descreve-se a obtenção de cristais Csl puro, Csl:Br e Csl:Pb, utilizando-se a técnica de Bridgman. A concentração do elemento dopante bromo (Br) foi estudada no intervalo de 1,5x10-1 M a 10-2 M e o elemento chumbo (Pb) no intervalo de 10-2 M a 5x10-4 M. Para avaliar os cintiladores desenvolvidos foram efetuadas medidas sistemáticas de emissão de luminescência e tempo de decaimento de luminescência para a radiação gama, ensaios de transmitância óptica, ensaios de microdureza Vickers, determinações da distribuição dos dopantes ao longo dos cristais crescidos e análise da resposta dos cristais à radiação gama no intervalo de energia de 350 keV a 1330 keV e partículas alfa provenientes de fonte de 241Am com energia de 5,54 MeV. Os resultados obtidos de tempo de decaimento de luminescência para os cristais CsI:Br e CsI:Pb, no intervalo de 13 ns a 19 ns, mostraram-se promissores para medidas de alta energia. O estudo de microdureza mostrou um aumento significativo em função da concentração dos elementos dopantes, quando comparado ao cristal Csl puro, melhorando desta forma a resistência mecânica dos cristais crescidos. A validade de utilização desses cristais como sensores de radiação para medidas de radiação gama e partículas alfa, pode ser demonstrada pelos resultados da resposta à radiação. / Tese (Doutoramento) / IPEN/T / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

This Thesis extends our fundamental knowledge of high-oxidation-state chemistry and in particular compounds of Xe(VIII), Xe(VI), and Ir(V). The crystal structure of XeVIIIO4 was obtained and provides important information on this fundamentally interesting endothermic and shock-sensitive compound. Macroscopic amounts of XeO3F2 have been prepared for the first time. Although the low-temperature Raman spectrum of solid XeO3F2 exhibits some frequency shifts and band splittings of the bending modes, the spectrum is similar to the Raman spectrum of the previously reported matrix-isolated compound. The crystal structures of decomposition and byproducts resulting from the syntheses of XeO3F2 have been obtained for [XeF5][HF2]∙XeOF4 and XeF2∙XeO2F2. The solid-state structure of xenon trioxide, XeO3, was reinvestigated by low-temperature single-crystal X-ray diffraction and shown to exhibit polymorphism that is dependent on crystallization conditions. The previously reported α-phase (orthorhombic, P212121) only forms upon evaporation of aqueous HF solutions of XeO3. In contrast, two new phases, β-XeO3 (rhombohedral, R3) and gamma-XeO3 (rhombohedral, R3c) have been obtained by slow evaporation of aqueous solutions of XeO3. The extended structures of all three phases result from Xe=O----Xe bridge interactions among XeO3 molecules that arise from the amphoteric donor-acceptor nature of XeO3. The Xe atom of the trigonal pyramidal XeO3-unit has three Xe---O secondary bonding interactions. The orthorhombic α-phase displays the greatest degree of variation among the contact distances and has a significantly higher density than the rhombohedral phases. The ambient-temperature Raman spectra of solid α- and gamma-XeO3 have also been obtained and assigned for the first time. Xenon trioxide interacts with CH3CN and CH3CH2CN to form O3XeNCCH3, O3Xe(NCCH3)2, O3XeNCCH2CH3, and O3Xe(NCCH2CH3)2. Their low-temperature single-crystal X-ray structures show that the xenon atoms are consistently coordinated to three electron-donor atoms which result in pseudo-octahedral environments around their xenon atoms. The adduct series provides the first examples of a neutral xenon oxide bound to nitrogen bases. Energy-minimized gas-phase geometries and vibrational frequencies were obtained for the model compounds O3Xe(NCCH3)n (n = 1−3) and O3Xe(NCCH3)n∙[O3Xe(NCCH3)2]2 (n = 1, 2). The natural bond orbital (NBO), quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM), electron localization function (ELF), and molecular electrostatic potential surface (MEPS) analyses were carried out to further probe the nature of the bonding in these adducts. Xenon trioxide forms adducts with the polytopic nitrogen base ligands: hexamine, DABCO, 2,2’-bipyridine, 1,10-phenanthroline, and 4,4’-bipyridine. The adducts were conveniently synthesized in aqueous or CH3CN solutions and are stable at room temperature. The crystal structures of hexamine∙2XeO3, hexamine∙XeO3∙H2O, 2,2’-bipyridine∙XeO3, 1,10-phenanthroline∙XeO3, and 4,4’-bipyridine∙XeO3 have been determined by low-temperature single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The structures consist of XeO3 molecules bridged by the ligands to form extended supramolecular networks with Xe---N bonds which range from 2.634(3) to 2.829(2) Å. Raman spectroscopy was used to characterize and probe the room-temperature stabilities of these adducts. The reaction of 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) with XeO3 in aqueous solutions yields thin, plate-shaped crystals which are severely twinned whereas the reaction of DABCO with XeO3 in the presence of HF forms [DABCOH]2[F2(XeO3)2]∙H2O and [DABCOH2][F][H2F3] which were also characterized by low-temperature X-ray crystallography and Raman spectroscopy. A reversible temperature-dependent phase transition occurred for [DABCOH]2[F2(XeO3)2]∙H2O. The structures of 2,2’-bipy∙XeO3 and 1,10-phen∙XeO3 provide the first examples of noble-gas chelates. The structure of hexamine∙XeO3∙H2O provides the first instance in which a noble-gas centre is coordinated by water. These compounds also represent the first examples of sp2- and sp3-hybridized N---Xe(VI) bonds and are rare examples of noble-gas compounds that are air-stable at ambient temperatures. Adducts between XeO3 and three molar equivalents of the nitrogen bases, pyridine and 4-dimethylaminopyridine (4-DMAP), have been synthesized and characterized. The crystal structures of (C5H5N)3XeO3, {(CH3)2)2NC5H4N}3XeO3∙H2O have been determined by low-temperature single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The reaction of hydrolyzed XeF6 in acetonitrile with pyridine or 4-DMAP afforded [C5H5NH]4[HF2]2[F2(XeO3)2] and [(CH3)2NC5H4NH][HF2]∙XeO3 which were characterized by low-temperature X-ray crystallography and Raman spectroscopy. The structures contain pyridinium cations that are hydrogen bonded to the fluoride coordinated to XeO3 and can be viewed as pyridinium fluoroxenates. The structure of (CH3)2NC5H5N∙XeO3∙H2O contains a water molecule that is hydrogen bonded to two oxygen atoms of two adjacent XeO3 molecules. The pyridine adduct, (C5H5N)3XeO3, was found to be relatively insensitive to shock, whereas the 4-DMAP adduct was extremely shock sensitive. The number of isolable compounds which contain different noble-gas−element bonds is limited for xenon and even more so for krypton. Examples of Xe−Cl bonds are rare and prior to this work, no definitive evidence for a Xe−Br bonded compound existed. The syntheses, isolation, and characterization of the first compounds to contain Xe−Br bonds ([N(C2H5)4]3[Br3(XeO3)3] and [N(CH3)4]4[Br4(XeO3)4]) and their chlorine analogues are described. The bromo- and chloroxenate salts are stable in the atmosphere at room temperature and were characterized in the solid state by Raman spectroscopy, low-temperature single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and in the gas phase by quantum-chemical calculations. They are the only known examples of cage anions that contain a noble-gas element. The Xe−Br and Xe−Cl bonds are weakly covalent and can be viewed as σ-hole interactions, similar to halogen bonds. Xenon trioxide reacts with alkali metal fluorides and chlorides to form a variety of room-temperature stable fluoro- and chloroxenate salts. The reaction of XeO3 with various ratios of KF in water afforded three new compounds. The crystal structures of α-K[F(XeO3)2], β-K[F(XeO3)2], α-K[FXeO3], K2[F2(XeO3)] have been determined. The reaction of XeO3 with aqueous CsF resulted in Cs3[F3(XeO3)2]. The XeVI−F bond lengths range from 2.3520(18) to 2.5927(17) Å. No stable product was isolated when [N(CH3)4]F was the fluoride source, but in the presence of HF, crystals of [N(CH3)4]3[HF2]2[H2F3]∙2XeO3 were obtained. The reaction of KCl with XeO3 in equimolar amounts resulted in the formation of K[ClXeO3] whereas the analogous reaction with CsCl yielded Cs3[Cl3(XeO3)4]. Attempts to synthesize Xe–P and Xe–S bonded compounds were unsuccessful and instead resulted in adducts between XeO3 and O-bases such as the phosphine oxide adduct, {(C6H5)3PO}2XeO3 and dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) adduct {(CH3)2SO}3(XeO3)2. Although DMSO was found to be resistant to oxidation by XeO3, no significant Xe---S bonding interactions were observed. Acetone was found to be highly resistant to oxidation by XeO3 and forms {(CH3)2CO}3XeO3 at low temperatures. The reaction of pyridine-N-oxide yielded large crystals of (C5H5NO)3(XeO3)2 in which the structure contains short chains in contrast with ((CH3)2SO)3(XeO3)2 whose structure consists of discrete dimers. The reaction of XeO3 with the oxidatively resistant main-group oxide anion source, [N(CH3)4][OTeF5] in CH3CN solvent afforded [N(CH3)4][F5TeOXeO3(CH3CN)2]. Xenon trioxide reacts with potassium hydroxide to form the previously known K4[XeO6]∙2XeO3 salt which was characterized by Raman spectroscopy and low-temperature X-ray crystallography. The reaction of MgO with XeO3 yielded single crystals of [Mg(OH2)6]4[XeO6(XeO3)12O2]∙12H2O, which also contains perxenate-XeO3 interactions. Alkali metal carbonates also incorporate XeO3 into their crystal lattices. Raman spectra of M2[CO3(XeO3)n]∙xH2O (M = Na, K, Rb) were recorded and contain intense bands assigned to the XeO3 stretching modes and very weak bands assigned to the [CO3]2− modes. The reaction of dilute aqueous solutions of XeO3 with RbOH and atmospheric CO2 afforded single crystals of Rb2[CO3(XeO3)2]∙2H2O which were characterized by low-temperature X-ray crystallography. Attempts to incorporate XeO3 into other polyatomic anion salts such as KMnO4, NaClO3, and NaNO3 were unsuccessful. The reaction of IrO2 with XeF6 in aHF provided [Xe2F11][IrF6], whereas the reaction of IrO2 with KrF2 with ClF3 in anhydrous HF solvent provided [ClO2][Ir2F11] and [ClO2][(μ-OIrF4)3]. The structure of [(μ-OIrF4)3]− consists of a six membered Ir3O3 ring with four terminal fluorine atoms on each Ir atom. It was also found that ClF3 forms an adduct with [Xe2F11][HF2] in which the structural parameters of ClF3 are very similar to that of solid ClF3. The [ClO2][Ir2F11] salt provides the first structural information on the [Ir2F11]− anion and the [(μ-OIrF4)3]− anion represents the first isolated iridium oxide fluoride species. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Xenon is a noble-gas element which is located in the far right-hand column of the periodic table and was previously thought to be chemically unreactive and incapable of forming compounds. In 1962, it was shown that xenon reacts with the most reactive compounds, such as elemental fluorine, but the resulting xenon compounds are themselves highly reactive. This Thesis extends the chemistry of some of the most unstable and chemically reactive xenon compounds that are currently known. One such compound, xenon trioxide, tends to easily detonate unless carefully handled. Methods of stabilizing xenon trioxide were developed and its behaviour with compounds which resulted in formation of new xenon compounds was studied. The molecular structures of these compounds were investigated in the solid with particular emphases on their chemical bonding. Iridium is one of the most chemically resistant metals known. Highly reactive xenon and krypton compounds were used synthesize new iridium compounds.

Lack of energy storage is a key issue in the development of renewable energy sources. Most renewables, especially solar and wind, when used alone, cannot sustain a reliably constant power output over an extended period of time. These sources generally generate variable amounts of power intermittently, therefore, an efficient electrical energy storage (EES) method is required to better temporally balance power generation to power consumption. One of the more promising methods of electrical energy storage is the unitized regenerative fuel cell (UFRC.) UFRCs are fuel cells that can operate in a charge-discharge cycle, similar to a battery, to store and then to subsequently release power. Power is stored by means of electrolysis while the products of this electrolysis reaction can be recombined as in a normal fuel cell to release the stored power. A major advantage of UFRCs over batteries is that storage capacity can be decoupled from cell power, thus reducing the potential cost and weight of the cell unit. Here we investigate UFRCs based on hydrogen-halogen systems, specifically hydrogen-bromine, which has potential for improved electrode reaction kinetics and hence cheaper catalysts and higher efficiency and energy density. A mathematical model has been developed to analyze this system and determine cell behavior and cycle efficiency under various conditions. The conventional H2-Br2 URFCs, however also so far have utilized Pt catalysts and Nafion membranes. Consequently, a goal of this work was to explore alternate schemes and materials for the H2-Br2 URFC. Thus, three generations of test cells have been created. The first two cells were designed to use a molten bromide salt, ionic liquid or anion exchange membrane as the ion exchange electrolyte with the liquids supported on a porous membrane. This type of system provides the potential to reduce the amount of precious metal catalyst required, or possibly eliminate it altogether. Each cell showed improvement over the previous generation, although the results are preliminary. The final set of results are promising for anion exchange membranes on a cost basis compared Nafion. Another promising energy storage solution involves liquid methanol as an intermediate or as a hydrogen carrier. An alternative to storing high-pressure hydrogen is to produce it on-board/on-site on demand via a methanol electrocatalytic reformer (eCRef), a PEM electrolyzer in which methanol-water coelectrolysis takes place. Methanol handling, storage, and transportation is much easier than that for hydrogen. The hydrogen produced via methanol eCref may then be used in any number of applications, including for energy storage and generation in a standard H2-O2 PEM fuel cell. The mathematical modeling and analysis for an eCref is very similar to that of the HBr URFC. In this work, a comprehensive model for the coelectrolysis of methanol and water into hydrogen is created and compared with experimental data. The performance of the methanol electrolyzer coupled with a H2-O2 fuel cell is then compared for efficiency to that of a direct methanol fuel cell data and was found to be superior. The results suggest that an efficient and small paired eCRef-fuel cell system is potentially be a cheaper and more viable alternative to the standard direct methanol fuel cell. Both the H2-Br2 URFC and the methanol eCref in combination with a H2-O2 fuel cell have significant potential to provide higher energy efficiency and energy density for EES purposes.