Atualmente, há poucas aplicações de uso de combustíveis renováveis em queimadores, apesar de representarem grande parte do consumo de energia primária. O etanol se apresenta como uma alternativa com grande potencial para substituição de combustíveis não-renováveis em queimadores no Brasil. Tendo em vista este potencial, foi realizado um estudo de possíveis aplicações de queimadores a etanol, com potência inferior a 50 kW, do ponto de vista ambiental, econômico e tecnológico. Foi selecionada uma churrasqueira como a aplicação mais viável. Tendo em vista a necessidade de troca de calor por radiação, foram selecionados queimadores porosos infravermelhos em conjunto com bicos pulverizadores. Durante os testes, a combustão incompleta com gotejamento de combustível se mostrou um problema freqüente. Foi construída uma série de protótipos até se chegar a uma solução final do problema. Este protótipo final, com itens de baixo custo, foi testado avaliando-se potência e emissões, apresentando performance adequada. Foram também estabelecidas diretrizes para desenvolvimento de um produto. / Nowadays, there are few applications of renewable fuels in burners, despite representing a large share of primary energy consumption. Ethanol presents as an alternative with great potential of non-renewable fuels substitution in burners in Brazil. Facing this potential, a study with possible applications of ethanol burners, with output power lower than 50 kW, was carried out, considering environmental, economic and technological aspects. Grill was chosen as the most feasible application. Once radiant heat transfer is needed, infrared porous burner combined with spray nozzles were selected. Throughout the tests, incomplete combustion with fuel dripping was shown as a recurrent problem. A sequence of prototypes was built until a final solution. This last prototype, with low cost components, was tested, assessing output power end emissions, presenting sufficient performance. Guidelines to product development were stipulated.

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Much Research on composite solid propellants has been performed over the past few decades and much progress has been made, yet many of the fundamental processes are still unknown, and the development of new propellants remains highly empirical. Ways to enhance the performance of solid propellants for rocket and other applications continue to be explored experimentally, including the effects of various additives and the impact of fuel and oxidizer particle sizes on burning behavior. One established method to measure the burning rate of composite propellant mixtures in a controlled laboratory setting is to use a constant-volume pressure vessel, or strand burner. To provide high-pressure burn rate data at pressures up to 360 atm, the authors have installed, characterized and improved a strand burner facility at the University of Central Florida. Details on the facility and its improvements, the measurement procedures, and the data reduction and interpretation are presented. Two common HTPB/AP propellant mixtures were tested in the original strand burner. The resulting burn rates were compared to data from the literature with good agreement, thus validating the facility and related test techniques, the data acquisition, data reduction and interpretation. After more than 380 successful recordings, an upgraded version of the strand burner, was added to the facility. The details of Strand Burner II, its improvements over Strand Burner I, and its characterization study are presented.

Thin filament pyrometry is a proven technique used to measure flame temperature by capturing the spectral radiance produced by the immersion of silicon carbide filaments in a hot gas environment. In this study a commercially available CMOS color camera was used, and the spectral response of each color channel was integrated with respect to the assumed graybody radiation spectrum to form a look up table between color ratio and temperature. Interpolated filament temperatures are then corrected for radiation losses via an energy balance to determine the flame temperature. Verification of the technique was performed on the Holthuis and Associates Flat Flame Burner, formerly known as the Mckenna Burner, and the results are directly compared to literature values measured on a similar burner. The results are also supported by radiation corrected measurements taken using a type B thermocouple on the same burner setup. An error propagation analysis was performed to determine which factors contribute the most to the final measurement uncertainty and confidence intervals are calculated for the results. Uncertainty values for a single point measurement were determined to be between ±15 and ±50 K depending on the color ratio and the total uncertainty associated with day-to-day changes in the measurement setup was found to be ±55 K. / Master of Science / Determination of flame temperature is an important aspect of combustion research and is often critical to the evaluation of combustion systems as well as the integration of those systems into more complex devices. In this thesis the technique of thin filament pyrometry was implemented and verified through the use of a well characterized calibration flame. This technique involves placing thin filaments usually made from silicon carbide into the flame and capturing the spectrum of light they emit with a detector. Since the amount of light emitted as well as which wavelengths the light is concentrated in is a strong function of temperature, this methodology may be used to calculate the temperature of the flame. Thin filament pyrometry has the advantage compared to other techniques in that it is extremely cheap to implement and requires no advanced scientific equipment. The SiC filaments have been shown to have a very high resistance to the flame environment and do not face many of the same challenges that can cause problems for other techniques. A statistical analysis of the method implemented in this work was also performed and the expected uncertainty was similar to many of the alternative techniques which necessitate a more complex or expensive setup.

In this work, turbulent premixed combustion was analyzed through CH (methylidyne) planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF). Flame topography measurements in terms of flame surface density and curvature were calculated based on the flame front detected by the CH PLIF signal. The goal of this work was to investigate turbulent flames with extremely high turbulence intensity using a recently developed HiPilot burner (a Bunsen-type burner). The studies were first conducted on a series of piloted jet flames to validate the methodology, and then conducted on the highly turbulent flames generated by the HiPilot burner. All flames were controlled by combusting methane and air under a fuel to air equivalence ratio of Φ=1.05, and the Reynolds number varied from 7,385 to 28,360. Flame surface density fields and profiles for the HiPilot burner are presented. These flame surface density measurements showed an overall decrease with height above the burner. In addition, curvature statistics for the HiPilot flames were calculated and probability density functions of the curvature samples were determined. The probability density functions of curvature for the flames showed Gaussian-shaped distributions centered near zero curvature. To conclude, flame topography measurements were verified on jet flames and were demonstrated on the new HiPilot flames. / Master of Science

The influence of stratification on the structure of turbulent methane/air combustion is investigated using experimental data from laboratory scale burners: a weakly turbulent slot burner, and a higher turbulence co-annular swirl burner. The degree of stratification can be controlled independently of the overall fuel/air flow rate. The resulting measurements of scalar and velocity fields provide detailed test cases for existing and emerging turbulent flame models, covering a range of u'/sL from 1 to 10, turbulence intensities from 5% to 60%, and stratification ratios from 1 to 3. Simultaneous Rayleigh/Raman/CO-LIF measurements of temperature and major species concentrations - CH4, CO2, CO, H2, H2O and O2 - along a line are used to investigate the structure of a series of flames in both the slot and swirl burners. Concurrent cross-planar OH-PLIF allows thermal gradients to be angle corrected to their three-dimensional values. Finally, non-reacting and reacting velocity fields complete the flame database. The behavior of major species concentrations in the slot and swirl burner with respect to temperature is found to agree well on the mean with unstrained premixed laminar flame calculations. Scalar means conditioned on stoichiometry also show good agreement, aside from hydrogen which is enhanced under stratified conditions. Surface density function and scalar dissipation are lower than calculated values in all cases, suggesting that turbulence-induced thickening dominates the effect of increased strain. Metrics commonly used to derive flame surface density (FSD) were investigated. FSD may be determined using a statistical method based on measurements of temperature and its gradient, or a geometric method based on 2D temperature or LIF imaging. A third metric, an extension of the geometric method, is proposed. Good agreement is observed between the three metrics. The current database provides the first detailed high resolution scalar measurements for premixed and stratified flames. The data analysis provides insight into the physics of stratification: for the flames considered, the effects of stratification appear to be surprisingly small compared to those of turbulence, even at significant stratification ratios. The datasets provide a means of validating current and future computational turbulent combustion models.

La vitesse de flamme adiabatique est un paramètre clé dans l'étude de la combustion d'hydrocarbures. Elle joue en effet un rôle essentiel dans le domaine de la combustion, dans la mesure où elle est utilisée pour valider des modèles numériques, pour construire des brûleurs, ou encore pour prédire d'éventuels retours de flamme ou souffles de la flamme. Le but de cette thèse a été d'étudier les vitesses de flammes laminaires d'un grand nombre d'hydrocarbures présents dans les gaz naturels, les essences et les gazoles. Ce travail comprend une partie expérimentale et une partie de modélisation. La partie expérimentale a permis d'enrichir les bases de données de la littérature pour différentes compositions de mélanges air/hydrocarbures. Les travaux ont été effectués sur un nouveau montage mis au point au LRGP (Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés) pour la mesure de vitesses de flammes laminaires par la méthode du flux de chaleur à l'aide d'un brûleur adiabatique à flamme plate. Cette méthode est basée sur l'équilibre des pertes thermiques nécessaires pour stabiliser la flamme par le flux de chaleur convectif allant de la surface du brûleur vers le front de flamme. Le brûleur est constitué d'une plaque perforée montée sur une chambre de mélange des gaz et la mesure de la distribution radiale de la température est réalisée grâce à une série de thermocouples. Ce montage a d'abord été utilisé à pression atmosphérique et plusieurs températures pour la mesure de vitesses de flammes de composés gazeux (alcanes, alcènes, méthane enrichi en hydrogène ou oxygène, gaz naturels, mélanges méthane-éthane et méthane-propane) et de composés liquides (alcanes, éthanol, essences commerciale et modèle additionnées ou non d'éthanol, alkylcyclohexanes, alkylbenzènes). Le montage a ensuite été placé dans une enceinte pour pouvoir travailler avec des pressions pouvant théoriquement aller jusqu'à 10 atm. Les vitesses de flammes de deux composés ont été étudiées à température ambiante et à haute pression : un composé gazeux, le méthane, jusqu'à une pression de 6 atm et un composé liquide, le n-pentane, jusqu'à une pression de 4 atm. Une étude de modélisation a complété ce travail par l'utilisation de modèles cinétiques détaillés pour la combustion des composés étudiés. Ces modèles ont été testés par la simulation des résultats expérimentaux précédemment obtenus, dans des conditions de richesse, température et pression variées / The laminar burning velocity is a key parameter in the combustion of hydrocarbons study. It plays an essential role in the combustion science area since it is used for the validation of numerical models, the design of burners or to predict potential flashback or blow off of the flame. The goal of the thesis was the study of laminar burning velocities of many hydrocarbons found in natural gases, gasolines or diesel fuels. This work includes an experimental part and a modeling part. The experimental part allowed the implementation of the literature database for different air/hydrocarbons mixtures. The experiments were performed with a new apparatus developed at LRGP (Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés) for the measurement of laminar burning velocities by the heat flux method thanks to a flat flame adiabatic burner. This method is based on balancing of the heat loss required for the flame stabilization by the convective heat flux from the burner surface to the flame front. The burner head is a thick perforated plate included in a plenum mixing chamber and the measurement of the radial distribution of the temperature is performed with a thermocouples series. This apparatus was first used at atmospheric pressure and several temperatures to measure laminar burning velocities of gaseous compounds (alkanes, alkenes, hydrogen-enriched or oxygen-enriched methane, natural gases, methane-ethane and methane-propane mixtures) and liquid compounds (alkanes, ethanol, commercial gasoline and model fuel with addition of ethanol or not, alkylcyclohexanes, alkylbenzènes). The apparatus was then placed in a chamber in order to work under pressures theoretically up to 10 atm. Laminar burning velocities of two compounds were studied at room temperature and high pressure : a gaseous compound, methane, for pressures up to 6 atm and a liquid compound, n-pentane, for pressures up to 4 atm. A modelling study completed this work by using detailed kinetic models for the combustion of studied compounds. These models were tested by the simulation of experimental results previously obtained, in various equivalence ratio, temperature and pressure conditions

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / The use of biogas, with high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in its composition, in thermal systems of conventional combustion can result in combustion instabilities, leading to a decrease of the flame front propagation velocity, resulting even to the flame extinction. In addition, this contaminant can increase greenhouse gas levels in the exhaust, such as carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), nitrogen oxides (NOx) among others. Thus, this research aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of "Filtration Combustion" (FC) to deal with fuels of low heat content, such as biogas. CF is a non-conventional technology capable of producing ultra-low emissions of CO, HC and NOx. The experimental apparatus used in this research consists of a porous burner constituted of ceramic spheres (alumina) that fill the combustion chamber, where heat exchangers are inserted at the porous matrix ends. The FC allows even the application of a reciprocating gas flow system, which periodically switches the direction of the gas flow in the chamber. The reciprocal filtration combustion allows the operation with several fuels and providing a stable combustion process with temperature distribution on trapezoidal profile, with temperature peaks between 1300 and 1600 K. In this context, the present experimental study tries to identify and to analyze the effects of carbon dioxide in FC, which covers energy extraction efficiency, emissions, reaction stability, and flammability limits using several air-fuel mixtures, altering both the CO2 concentration in the biogas composition as the equivalence ratio (ER), in which the technical methane is taken as the reference gas. The results have pointed out significant benefits of the reversal on the combustion process, allowing operation in a wide equivalence ratio range (0.1 <&#1060; <1.0), and achieving energy extraction efficiencies above 90%, with ultra-low CO and NOx emissions (below 1 ppm). However, when the burner operates on only flow direction, it is possible to realize a drastic reduction of the flammability limit, as the CO2 content in the biogas composition is increased. / A utilizaÃÃo do biogÃs, com elevadas concentraÃÃes de diÃxido de carbono (CO2) em sua composiÃÃo, em sistemas tÃrmicos de combustÃo convencionais pode resultar em instabilidades na reaÃÃo, levando a uma diminuiÃÃo da velocidade de propagaÃÃo da frente de chama (onda de combustÃo), ocasionando inclusive a sua extinÃÃo. AlÃm disso, este contaminante pode aumentar os Ãndices de gases poluentes na exaustÃo, tais como: monÃxido de carbono (CO), hidrocarbonetos nÃo queimados (HC), Ãxidos de nitrogÃnio (NOx), dentre outros. Por esta razÃo, esta pesquisa tem como objetivo demonstrar a eficÃcia da "CombustÃo de FiltraÃÃo" (CF) em lidar com os combustÃveis de baixo poder calorÃfico, como o biogÃs. CF à uma tecnologia nÃo-convencional capaz de produzir emissÃes ultrabaixas de CO, HC e NOx. O aparato experimental empregado nessa pesquisa consistiu de um queimador poroso, constituÃdo de esferas cerÃmicas (alumina) que preenchem a cÃmara de combustÃo, onde trocadores de calor estÃo inseridos nas extremidades dessa matriz porosa. A CF possibilitou, inclusive, a aplicaÃÃo de um sistema de escoamento recÃproco, que alternou periodicamente a direÃÃo do escoamento dos gases na cÃmara. A combustÃo de filtraÃÃo recÃproca permitiu a operaÃÃo com diversos combustÃveis e proporciona um processo de combustÃo estÃvel com a distribuiÃÃo de temperatura em perfil trapezoidal, com picos de temperatura entre 1300 e 1600 K. Neste contexto, o presente estudo experimental buscou identificar e analisar os efeitos do diÃxido de carbono na CF, o que engloba eficiÃncia de extraÃÃo de energia, emissÃes, estabilidade da reaÃÃo, e limites de inflamabilidade, utilizando vÃrias misturas ar-combustÃvel, alterando tanto a concentraÃÃo de CO2 na composiÃÃo do biogÃs como a razÃo de equivalÃncia (RE), tendo como gÃs de referÃncia o metano tÃcnico. Os resultados apontaram benefÃcios significativos da reversÃo sobre o processo de combustÃo, permitindo a operaÃÃo em uma ampla faixa de razÃo de equivalÃncia (0,1<&#1060;<1,0), e alcanÃando uma eficiÃncia de extraÃÃo de energia acima de 90%, com emissÃes ultrabaixas de CO e NOx (abaixo de 1 ppm). Em contrapartida, quando o queimador operou em apenas um sentido do escoamento, foi possÃvel perceber uma reduÃÃo no limite de inflamabilidade à medida que foi incrementado o teor de CO2 na composiÃÃo do biogÃs.

Im Rahmen der Dissertation wurde ein vollkeramischer Porenbrenner entwickelt, der im Bereich hoher Prozesstemperaturen eingesetzt werden kann. Die Brennerentwicklung umfasste die Entwicklung und Auswahl von geeigneten Komponenten wie ein Gehäuse und eine Flammensperre sowie die Anpassung an die Brennergeometrie. Die entwickelten Porenbrenner wurden Tests im Freibrand und im Hochtemperaturofen im Labor unterzogen. Eine entscheidende Rolle für die Bewertung des Brennersystems spielte die Qualifizierung unter Realbedingungen. Das Brennersystem wurde in Ofenanlagen zur Glasherstellung eingesetzt. Durch die Versuche in einer Arbeitswanne für die Herstellung von Behälterglas und in einer Vorwärmtrommel für die Herstellung von Kunstglas wurde der Nachweis der Industrietauglichkeit erbracht. Es wurden dabei die Vorteile wie Energieeinsparnis, verbesserte thermische Homogenität und niedrige CO- und NOx-Emissionen gezeigt.

Biomass fast pyrolysis liquid, also known as bio-oil, is a promising renewable fuel for heat and power generation; however, implementing crude bio-oil in some current combustion systems can degrade combustion performance and emissions. In this study, optimizing fuel properties to improve combustion is considered. Various bio-oils with different fuel properties are tested in a pilot stabilized spray burner under very close flow conditions. Effects of solids, ash and water content of bio-oil as well as ethanol blending were examined. The results show the amount of solids and ash fractions of the fuel were correlated with combustion efficiency. The CO and unburned hydrocarbon emissions decreased with both water and ethanol content. Increasing the fuel’s volatile content by blending in ethanol has been shown to improve flame stability. Also, the organic fraction of particulate matter emissions was found to be a strong function of the thermogravimetric analysis residue of the fuel.