<p>Denna studie har genom halvstrukturerade kvalitativa intervjuer med 13 högstadieelever undersökt hur eleverna upplever två reklamfilmer mot mobbing. Filmerna har lanserats av stiftelsen Friends och utgör en del i deras arbete mot mobbing. Resultatet sammanställdes genom induktiv tematisk analys och åtta teman framkom. Temana var: Känsloprocess, Indirekt mobbing berör mer än direkt mobbing, Kan hända vem som helst, Förståelse för mobboffret, Hjälparen väcker beundran, Medlöparens brist på ingripande, Lärarens passivitet irriterar samt Alla kan hjälpa till. Det resultat som framkom jämfördes med det som Friends önskade att åskådaren skulle uppleva. Resultatet kopplades även ihop med teorierna bystander-effect och empati. Det visade sig att intervjupersonerna i stort upplevde filmerna som Friends önskade.</p>

Denna studie har genom halvstrukturerade kvalitativa intervjuer med 13 högstadieelever undersökt hur eleverna upplever två reklamfilmer mot mobbing. Filmerna har lanserats av stiftelsen Friends och utgör en del i deras arbete mot mobbing. Resultatet sammanställdes genom induktiv tematisk analys och åtta teman framkom. Temana var: Känsloprocess, Indirekt mobbing berör mer än direkt mobbing, Kan hända vem som helst, Förståelse för mobboffret, Hjälparen väcker beundran, Medlöparens brist på ingripande, Lärarens passivitet irriterar samt Alla kan hjälpa till. Det resultat som framkom jämfördes med det som Friends önskade att åskådaren skulle uppleva. Resultatet kopplades även ihop med teorierna bystander-effect och empati. Det visade sig att intervjupersonerna i stort upplevde filmerna som Friends önskade.

Radiation induced bystander effects have changed our understanding of the biological effects of ionizing radiations. The original assumption was that biological effects require direct damage to DNA. The bystander effect eliminated that requirement and has become one main stream in radiation research ever since first reported over 20 years ago. Most bystander studies to date have been carried out by using conventional single cell in vitro systems , 2D cell array and 3D tissue samples, which are useful tools to characterize basic cellular and molecular responses. But to reveal the complexity of radiation responses and cellular communication, live animal models have many advantages. In recent years, models such as C. elegans and Zebrafish have been utilized in bystander effects research. In the Loma Linda/TAMU experiment, a L1 larva C. elegans model was devloped to study the radiation bystander effects by irradiating single intestine cell nuclei with a microbeam of protons. Due to the stochastic nature of particle interactions with matter and changing stopping power when protons slow down, precise dosimetry in the target nucleus is a difficult problem. This research was undertaken to provide a detailed description of the energy deposition in the targeted and surrounding non-targeted cell nuclei, and to evaluate the probabilities of the non-targeted cell nucleus being irradiated. A low probability is required to exclude the possibility of radiation biological an effect in non-targeted cells is caused by scattered particles. Mathematical models of the microbeam system and the worm body were constructed in this research. Performing Monte Carlo simulations with computer code, Geant 4, this research provided dosimetry data in cell nuclei in different positions and Geant 4, this research provided dosimetry data in cell nuclei in different positions and probabilities of scattering to non-targeted cell nuclei in various microbeam collima- tor configurations. The data provided will be useful for future collimated microbeam design.

Aims and objectives The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of bullying of educators by learners they teach, thereby make an effort to improve the methods of dealing with bullying in our schools by introducing a pastoral counselling approach to our schools. The objectives of the study were the following: • To journey with the bullied educators through method of positive deconstruction, so as to give a supportive system and to cease their pain of being shamed and belittled. • To develop a pastoral model to help bullying victims and perpetrators. • To avail to the educators another possible effective method to deal with bullying in our schools, "A formation of pastoral model". • To combat the acts of violence in our society • To create awareness of bullying in our society. This qualitative study endeavoured to answer the following research questions: What is the impact of bullying on the educator? The other forms of bullying like verbal bullying, teasing and threats found hard to investigate, as at times it is the victim's word against the perpetrator's word. The research found that it's not easy to get witnesses, especially from learners. Cases of the bully acts normally get neglected, unless, they ended up being physical. Findings and recommendations The study, presented findings and recommendations. These were to be piloted in one school with the aim to get to buy in of the Department of Education, so to have this approach implemented in all schools and be incorporated in the already existing policies and programmes of intervention. The author aimed at assisting our Department of Education and schools with an alternative method that can improve interventions. The study was feasible, as it was easy to find former educators and learners for interviews and study cases. Not much information was found from schools due to protocol, red tape and right procedure given our schools by the Government as far as information related to learners in our schools. It would have been difficult to complete this study on time if the author was to wait for authorization. Financially the author had to rely on his congregational and diocesan support. The author being a former educator was able therefore to work with adults who are no longer at school but have experienced bullying as former learners and educators. The following points are in the authors mind, as he seeks to research on the bullied, the bullies and the bystander: • Physical bullying is the most feared form of bullying and educators felt it a challenge as they can't retaliate due to policy. • Cyber bullying is the most difficult form of bullying that is highly perpetuated against educators and caused internal wounds and scars that take very long to heal. • Sexual bullying is one of the causes of high pregnancy amongst girls in our school. • Drugs and alcohol are a catalyst to many boys who bully their educators / Dissertation (MA (Theology))--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Practical Theology / MA (Theology) / Unrestricted

Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of bullying interventions targeted at bystanders; however, a fluency component has not been used in any studies to teach these skills. The present study investigated the inclusion of fluency training to teach and enhance skills that can be used when responding and defending the victim in fourth- and fifth-grade students (N=55 and N=53, respectively). All students participated in a modified version of the Bully Prevention in Positive Behavior Support for Elementary School program and filled out pre- and postrating scales to determine participant roles related to bullying. An experimental group also participated in fluency training sessions to teach bystander skills. Results showed that there was a significant interaction between group and time showing more growth on correct responses per minute (CRPM) for the experimental fluency group than the control group on bystander skills fluency task. Additionally, results showed that defender role scores significantly increased for the fluency group at post but not for the control group. There were no significant differences for the reinforcer or outsider role scores. Implications of these findings for school-based practice and research are discussed.

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The increase in bullying and its detrimental impacts threaten children's healthy development across the world; however, little research has examined multi-factors related to bullying. Guided by ecological theory, this study examined ecological factors that related to children's bystander and defender behavior when they witness bullying. Considering the role of culture and maternal emotion socialization in children's socio-emotional development, cultural differences in the relation of maternal emotion socialization on children's reactions to bullying through their empathy were investigated. Children (10-12 years old) and their mothers in the United States (n=165) and South Korea (n=158) participated in an online survey. Mothers completed the Coping with Children's Negative Emotions to assess maternal unsupportive and supportive reactions to their children's emotions. Children reported on their empathy (i.e., personal distress and empathic concern) using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index and on their bystander/defender behaviors using the Types of the Conformity Groups in Bullying. For bystander behavior, mothers' unsupportive reactions were significantly correlated with children's bystander behavior through empathic concern in both cultures. Personal distress mediated the relation of maternal unsupportive reactions to bystander behavior only in the American sample. For defender behavior, American mothers' supportive reactions directly predicted defender behavior whereas the effect of Korean mothers' supportive reactions on defender behavior was mediated by empathic concern. More personal distress was related to more defender behavior in the American sample while less personal distress was related to more defender behavior in the Korean sample. Results of this study supported cultural differences in the relation of maternal emotion socialization to children's reaction to bullying. American children were more likely to help the victim when their mothers supported their negative emotions. For Korean children, mothers' supportive reactions were related to their prosocial behavior through their empathic concern. However, in both cultures, children's empathic concern was a significant mediator in the relation between maternal unsupportive reactions and bystander behavior. This finding may provide educational guidance to bullying intervention programs across cultures. / Doctor of Philosophy / More than one out of five students in the United States and more than one out of ten students in South Korea experience bullying. The detrimental effects of bullying can affect not only victims and bullies but also classmates who witness the bullying. I examined factors that related to bystander behavior (ignoring or staying away from bullying) and defender behavior (helping the victim or actively endeavoring to stop bullying) in bullying to help in efforts to stop bullying. Because positive emotional experiences with mothers can help children develop empathy and empathy tends to elicit helping behavior, I examined how mothers' reactions to their children's negative emotions were related to children's bystander behavior and defender behavior through their empathic abilities. However, research and theories on bullying has been predominantly focused on Western populations. My study addressed this gap, examining cultural differences in the relations between the United States and South Korea to bring attention to the role of culture in parents' emotional socialization and children's development. Results from this study will help schools and communities to provide culturally sensitive bullying intervention programs with parents. Children (10-12 years old) and their mothers in the United States (n=165) and South Korea (n=158) participated in an online survey. Mothers were asked about ways that they react to their children's negative emotions. Mothers' unsupportive reactions refer to minimization, distress and punitive reactions when their children express negative emotions. Mothers' supportive reactions mean maternal comforting, acknowledgement, and encouragement of children's negative emotions. In the online survey, children reported on their empathy and reactions when they witness bullying. Cultural differences in the relations were confirmed. American children were more likely to help the victim when their mothers supported their negative emotions. For Korean children, mothers' supportive reactions were related to their defender behavior through their empathic concern. However, in both countries, the more mothers displayed supportive reactions, the more children reported empathic concern; children's empathic concern was an important bridge between maternal unsupportive reactions and bystander behavior.

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The communication of information between irradiated and non-irradiated bystander cell populations and the subsequent expression of radiation-like responses in the non-irradiated population, formally referred to as the radiation-induced bystander effect, is a very well established phenomenon in the study of radiobiology. Intercellular communication of bystander signals is known to occur via the exchange of soluble factors through biological fluids and via the transfer of molecules between adjacent cells via gap-junctions. Both of these communication methods require some degree of physical contact between biological entities. However, observations made in the literature demonstrating the induction of radiation effects in optically-coupled, yet chemically-separated organisms raises the hypothesis that alternative radiation bystander communication mechanisms may exist that have not yet been explored. Following the detection of significant photon emission from human keratinocyte cells exposed to ionizing beta-radiation by Ahmad in 2013, the involvement of an electromagnetic bystander signal was proposed. While not yet established in the field of radiobiology, intercellular communication via electromagnetic signalling is widely studied in the field of biophotonics. The emission of electromagnetic radiation from biological material, called biophoton emission, and the subsequent communication of effects using those signals has been characterized both spontaneously and as a result of perturbation by various stressors. This thesis therefore aimed to investigate intercellular communication via electromagnetic signalling stimulated by low-dose ionizing radiation to identify a possible convergence between the fields of biophoton communication and radiation-induced bystander effects. The characterization of biophoton emission from human cell cultures was accomplished using a single photon counting photomultiplier tube. The results revealed that biophoton emission is exacerbated by external stimulation (beta-radiation), it possesses a dependence upon the activity of radiation delivered, the density of the irradiated cell culture, and cell viability. These results suggest that biophoton emission is governed by physical transitions between excited and ground states and may further be modulated by metabolic processes. An effect of beta-radiation-induced biophoton emission upon non-irradiated bystander cells was identified and manifested as a reduction in cell survival. The modulatory effects observed following the application of photomodulating agents to the bystander cultures support ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation as a responsible factor in the communication of bystander signals. Observation of photon emission across the entire ultraviolet, visible and infrared spectra lead to the suggestion that ultraviolet wavelengths are only a portion of the signal responsible for eliciting bystander responses and that coherent interaction of multiple wavelengths is probable in the intercellular exchange of information. The possibility of a link between biophoton bystander signalling and soluble factor mediated bystander effects was investigated next by isolating exosomes from biophoton-exposed bystander cultures. Positive bystander responses were exhibited by secondary reporter cells incubated with the exosomes isolated from the biophoton-exposed bystander cultures, thereby suggesting that biophoton signalling is a possible form of biological redundancy where it acts as an intermediary to trigger soluble factor release and further reinforce intercellular communication. Finally, the effect of beta-radiation-induced biophoton signals upon mitochondrial activity was assessed and revealed the capacity for biophotons to downregulate Complex I and ATP synthase activity. The demonstrated effect of biophotons upon mitochondria elucidates a candidate mechanism worthy of further exploration to determine how biophotons may trigger responses in bystander cells. Overall, this thesis elucidates an additional mechanism for intercellular communication between biological systems perturbed by low doses of ionizing radiation, in the form of an electromagnetic signal. This work contributes to the current perspective on biophoton bystander signalling as a potential source of biological redundancy, facilitating a means of intercellular communication when optical coupling but not chemical contact is available in a given system. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The factor structure of the newly created Enacted Defending Scale (EDS) was investigated to better understand what strategies of defending children and adolescents enact to defend their peers from peer victimization. This investigation resulted in a 5-factor model, representative of assertive, overt aggressive, relationally aggressive, and two non-confrontational strategies of defending, telling an adult and comforting the victim. Aggressive forms of defending could be differentiated; whether the defending strategy was enacted in response to overt or relational victimization could not be differentiated. In general, aggressive strategies were associated with dependent variables indicative of poorer adjustment, while assertive and non-confrontational strategies were either related to positive dependent variables or unrelated to the psychosocial adjustment outcomes. Only one of the associations varied by age. The results suggest, first, that attention must be given to multiple forms of defending and that not all defending of peer victimization may have a prosocial effect, and second, that there is a need to carefully consider the potential consequences of defending for defenders themselves.