Genomas bacterianos são extremamente dinâmicos e boa parte dessa dinâmica ocorre devido a transferência horizontal e aquisição de DNA exógeno, um processo natural e fundamental para a evolução, adaptação e diversificação dos microrganismos. Ilhas genômicas são grandes regiões do cromossomo bacteriano adquiridas por transferência horizontal e estão presentes em apenas algumas linhagens, podendo conferir alguma vantagem adaptativa. Em Pseudomonas aeruginosa, até o momento foram caracterizadas pelo menos dezesseis ilhas genômicas e cada uma delas confere características diferentes a seus hospedeiros. Em P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (ou simplesmente PA14), encontram-se duas ilhas de patogenicidade denominadas PAPI-1 e PAPI-2, sendo a primeira a maior e a mais estudada, contendo 115 ORFs (“Open Reading Frame”, ou quadros abertos de leitura). Dentre estes, o gene int codifica uma integrase essencial para a excisão e integração de PAPI-1, e o gene soj é necessário para a manutenção da ilha na célula e é expresso apenas quando esta se encontra na forma epissomal. PAPI-1 codifica um provável sistema de secreção tipo IV (T4SS), similar ao do elemento móvel ICEHin1056, responsável pela transferência deste para outras bactérias. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar fatores genéticos e ambientais que contribuem para a transferência de PAPI-1 entre linhagens de P. aeruginosa. Foi observado que os mutantes por transposon nos genes PAPI-1 PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 e PA14_59940 têm a frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 diminuída, mas os genes interrompidos nesses mutantes não são essenciais para a excisão da ilha. Também foi mostrado que os reguladores percepção de quorum RhlR e MvfR têm influência na expressão do gene int, mas não de soj. O terceiro regulador de percepção de quorum, LasR, assim como a proteína H-NS MvaT, não tem influência na expressão de int e de soj. Ensaios de RT-PCR quantitativos mostraram que o choque térmico aumentou os níveis do mRNA de soj, mas não de int, corroborando dados previamente sugeridos pela literatura, que mostram uma maior freqüência de transferência de PAPI-1 nessas condições. Também foi analisado se o segundo mensageiro celular em bactérias, c-di-GMP, poderia contribuir para a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Alterações nas concentrações deste segundo mensageiro pela superexpressão de proteínas responsáveis por sua síntese ou degradação não foram capazes de afetar a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Houve diminuição na frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 a partir de linhagens doadoras superexpressando uma diguanilato ciclase ou uma fosfodiesterase de c-di-GMP, mas provavelmente este efeito não se deve aos níveis alterados desse segundo mensageiro. Em Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), uma região de 86 kb possui uma grande semelhança com PAPI-1 na organização dos genes. Além disso, possui uma série de ORFs relacionados aos genes “core” que definem uma família de ilhas genômicas sintênicas das quais PAPI-1 faz parte. Entretanto, os genes acessórios encontrados entre os blocos de genes conservados varia muito entre PAPI-1 e a região de XAC. Foi determinado que esta região de XAC não pode se excisar do cromossomo nas condições analisadas. Por fim, com o intuito de verificar as possíveis interações entre os produtos dos genes conservados em PAPI-1 e XAC, ensaios de duplo-híbrido foram realizados, porém não foi possível determiná-las, visto que apenas resultados falsos positivos foram obtidos. Este trabalho mostrou pela primeira vez que a percepção de quorum está envolvida com a expressão de soj e determinou uma extensa similaridade entre essa ilha e uma região do genoma de XAC / Bacterial genomes are extremely dynamic mostly because of horizontal gene transfer, a natural and fundamental process for evolution, adaptation and diversification of microorganisms. Genomic islands are large DNA segments acquired by horizontal gene transfer which are present only in a few strains and may confer some adaptative advantage. At least sixteen genomic islands have been characterized in Pseudomonas aeruginosa to date and each confers different characteristics to its host strain. P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (PA14) harbors two pathogenicity islands named PAPI-1 and PAPI-2. PAPI-1 is the largest one, carrying 115 open reading frames (ORFs). Among these, int codes for an integrase essential for PAPI-1 excision and integration, and soj is required for maintaining PAPI-1 in the cells, being expressed only when this island is in an episomal, circular form. PAPI-1 also harbors genes coding for a type four secretion system (T4SS) similar to the mobile element ICEHin1056, which is responsible for transferring this element to other bacteria. In this work, we show that transposon insertion in PAPI-1 genes PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 and PA14_59940 lowered the frequency of conjugation of PAPI-1 from PA14 to other bacteria, but those genes were not essential for PAPI-1 excision. Quorum sensing regulators RhlR and MvfR had a role in int expression, but did not alter soj transcription. The third quorum sensing regulator LasR, as well as the H-NS protein MvaT, did not alter both int and soj expression. Quantitative RT-PCR assays showed that cells incubated at heat shock conditions present higher levels of soj, mRNA, confirming published data that showed an increase in PAPI-1 transfer in these conditions. It was also analyzed whether the second messenger c-di-GMP would contribute to PAPI-1 excision/maintenance. Changes in the levels of this second messenger in cells overexpressing proteins responsible for its synthesis or degradation did not affect PAPI-1 excision and maintenance. A decrease in PAPI-1 transfer frequency was detected when those cells were used as donors in conjugation, but this effect cannot be attributed to the altered c-di-GMP levels. In Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), an 86 kb genome region shares similarity with PAPI-1 regarding gene homology and organization. It also carries ORFs related to the core genes that define a syntenic family of genomic islands that includes PAPI-1. Nevertheless, the accessory genes dispersed among the clusters of conserved genes are not related, when comparing PAPI-1 and this region in XAC. An epissomal form of this putative XAC island could not be detected in the conditions tested in this work. Finally, in order to verify interactions involving the conserved proteins in PAPI-1 and XAC, two hybrid assays were carried out, but only false positives results were obtained

c-di-GMP stellt einen wichtigen Regulator bei der Kontrolle von Motilität, Virulenz und der Biofilmbildung in Bakterien dar. Aufgrund der Vielfalt c-di-GMP-synthetisierender (Diguanylatzyklasen, DGC) bzw. abbauender (Phosphodiesterasen, PDE) Enzyme, c-di-GMP-bindender Effektoren und zellulärer Antworten etablierte sich die Theorie paralleler Regulationsmodule, die sich aus DGC, PDE, Effektor und Zielmolekül zusammensetzen und spezifische Prozesse wie die Cellulose-Synthese kontrollieren. Während die Aktivierung dieser durch c-di-GMP bereits verstanden und damit Effektor und Zielmolekül bekannt sind, konnten dem Modul bisher keine spezifisch wirkenden DGCs und PDEs zugeordnet werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Proteine DgcC und PdeK in E. coli spezifisch auf die Cellulose-Synthese in Makrokolonie-Biofilmen wirken und ein solches c-di-GMP-Modul bilden. Beide sind aktiv an der Umsetzung von c-di-GMP beteiligt und mittels Interaktionen Teil eines Multi-Protein-Komplexes, der auch die Cellulose-Synthase-Einheiten BcsA und BcsB umfasst. Aufgrund dieser Co-Lokalisation können DgcC und PdeK die c-di-GMP-Konzentration in unmittelbarer Umgebung zum c-di-GMP-bindenden Effektor BcsA kontrollieren. DgcC-PdeK somit stellen das erste Regulationsmodul dar, welches durch lokalisierte Synthese und Abbau von c-di-GMP wirkt und dessen Spezifität aufgrund multipler Protein-Interaktionen gewährleistet wird. 2011 kam es in Mitteleuropa zu einem schweren Ausbruch von Shiga-Toxin-produzierenden E. coli O104:H4, in dessen Verlauf fast 4000 Menschen erkrankten und etwa 20% ein Hämolytisch-urämisches Syndrom entwickelten. Die in dieser Arbeit erlangten Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass die einzigartige Kombination aus Toxin-Produktion und Biofilm-assoziierter Eigenschaften – das Potential zur c-di-GMP-Akkumulation (TL Povolotsky), verstärkte CsgD-Synthese und vor allem keine Cellulose-Produktion– möglicherweise zur erhöhten Virulenz dieses E. coli O104:H4 beitragen. / c-di-GMP represents an important regulator in the control of motility, virulence and biofilm formation. Due to the multiplicity of c-di-GMP-forming (diguanylate cyclases, DGCc) and -degrading (phosphodiesterases, PDEs) enzymes, c-di-GMP-binding effectors and cellular outputs, the theory of parallel existing c-di-GMP-regulation modules was established. Such a module consists of a DGC, a PDE, an effector and a target controlling a specific cellular output such as cellulose synthesis. Whereas the activation of cellulose synthesis is well understood, and therefore effector and target molecule are known, so far no DGC or PDE has been associated with the cellulose-specific c-di-GMP-module. Within the framework of this work it was shown that DgcC and PdeK act specifically on the regulation of cellulose synthesis in macrocolony biofilms, thus forming a c-di-GMP module. Both proteins are enzymatically active concerning c-di-GMP metabolism and through protein-interactions part of a multi-protein-complex, which includes the cellulose synthase-subunits BcsA and BcsB, too. Due to this co-localisation DgcC and PdeK can control the c-di-GMP-concentration in close proximity to the c-di-GMP-binding cellulose-synthase BcsA. Therefore, DgcC-PdeK represents the first signalling module, which acts through local c-di-GMP-synthesis and -degradation and controls specifically cellulose because of multiple protein-interactions with the synthase-complex. In 2011 a serious outbreak of shiga toxin producing E. coli O104:H4 occurred in Middle Europe with nearly 4000 patients of whom approximately 20% developing haemolytic uraemic syndrome. The results obtained in this study suggest that a unique combination of shiga toxin production and biofilm-associated properties – the potential of c-di-GMP accumulation (see PhD Thesis T. L. Povolotsky), enhanced CsgD-synthesis at 37°C and especially no cellulose production – potentially contribute to the enhanced virulence of E. coli O104:H4.

Genomas bacterianos são extremamente dinâmicos e boa parte dessa dinâmica ocorre devido a transferência horizontal e aquisição de DNA exógeno, um processo natural e fundamental para a evolução, adaptação e diversificação dos microrganismos. Ilhas genômicas são grandes regiões do cromossomo bacteriano adquiridas por transferência horizontal e estão presentes em apenas algumas linhagens, podendo conferir alguma vantagem adaptativa. Em Pseudomonas aeruginosa, até o momento foram caracterizadas pelo menos dezesseis ilhas genômicas e cada uma delas confere características diferentes a seus hospedeiros. Em P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (ou simplesmente PA14), encontram-se duas ilhas de patogenicidade denominadas PAPI-1 e PAPI-2, sendo a primeira a maior e a mais estudada, contendo 115 ORFs (“Open Reading Frame”, ou quadros abertos de leitura). Dentre estes, o gene int codifica uma integrase essencial para a excisão e integração de PAPI-1, e o gene soj é necessário para a manutenção da ilha na célula e é expresso apenas quando esta se encontra na forma epissomal. PAPI-1 codifica um provável sistema de secreção tipo IV (T4SS), similar ao do elemento móvel ICEHin1056, responsável pela transferência deste para outras bactérias. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar fatores genéticos e ambientais que contribuem para a transferência de PAPI-1 entre linhagens de P. aeruginosa. Foi observado que os mutantes por transposon nos genes PAPI-1 PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 e PA14_59940 têm a frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 diminuída, mas os genes interrompidos nesses mutantes não são essenciais para a excisão da ilha. Também foi mostrado que os reguladores percepção de quorum RhlR e MvfR têm influência na expressão do gene int, mas não de soj. O terceiro regulador de percepção de quorum, LasR, assim como a proteína H-NS MvaT, não tem influência na expressão de int e de soj. Ensaios de RT-PCR quantitativos mostraram que o choque térmico aumentou os níveis do mRNA de soj, mas não de int, corroborando dados previamente sugeridos pela literatura, que mostram uma maior freqüência de transferência de PAPI-1 nessas condições. Também foi analisado se o segundo mensageiro celular em bactérias, c-di-GMP, poderia contribuir para a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Alterações nas concentrações deste segundo mensageiro pela superexpressão de proteínas responsáveis por sua síntese ou degradação não foram capazes de afetar a excisão/manutenção de PAPI-1. Houve diminuição na frequência de transferência de PAPI-1 a partir de linhagens doadoras superexpressando uma diguanilato ciclase ou uma fosfodiesterase de c-di-GMP, mas provavelmente este efeito não se deve aos níveis alterados desse segundo mensageiro. Em Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), uma região de 86 kb possui uma grande semelhança com PAPI-1 na organização dos genes. Além disso, possui uma série de ORFs relacionados aos genes “core” que definem uma família de ilhas genômicas sintênicas das quais PAPI-1 faz parte. Entretanto, os genes acessórios encontrados entre os blocos de genes conservados varia muito entre PAPI-1 e a região de XAC. Foi determinado que esta região de XAC não pode se excisar do cromossomo nas condições analisadas. Por fim, com o intuito de verificar as possíveis interações entre os produtos dos genes conservados em PAPI-1 e XAC, ensaios de duplo-híbrido foram realizados, porém não foi possível determiná-las, visto que apenas resultados falsos positivos foram obtidos. Este trabalho mostrou pela primeira vez que a percepção de quorum está envolvida com a expressão de soj e determinou uma extensa similaridade entre essa ilha e uma região do genoma de XAC / Bacterial genomes are extremely dynamic mostly because of horizontal gene transfer, a natural and fundamental process for evolution, adaptation and diversification of microorganisms. Genomic islands are large DNA segments acquired by horizontal gene transfer which are present only in a few strains and may confer some adaptative advantage. At least sixteen genomic islands have been characterized in Pseudomonas aeruginosa to date and each confers different characteristics to its host strain. P. aeruginosa UCBPP-PA14 (PA14) harbors two pathogenicity islands named PAPI-1 and PAPI-2. PAPI-1 is the largest one, carrying 115 open reading frames (ORFs). Among these, int codes for an integrase essential for PAPI-1 excision and integration, and soj is required for maintaining PAPI-1 in the cells, being expressed only when this island is in an episomal, circular form. PAPI-1 also harbors genes coding for a type four secretion system (T4SS) similar to the mobile element ICEHin1056, which is responsible for transferring this element to other bacteria. In this work, we show that transposon insertion in PAPI-1 genes PA14_59860, PA14_59880, PA14_59920 and PA14_59940 lowered the frequency of conjugation of PAPI-1 from PA14 to other bacteria, but those genes were not essential for PAPI-1 excision. Quorum sensing regulators RhlR and MvfR had a role in int expression, but did not alter soj transcription. The third quorum sensing regulator LasR, as well as the H-NS protein MvaT, did not alter both int and soj expression. Quantitative RT-PCR assays showed that cells incubated at heat shock conditions present higher levels of soj, mRNA, confirming published data that showed an increase in PAPI-1 transfer in these conditions. It was also analyzed whether the second messenger c-di-GMP would contribute to PAPI-1 excision/maintenance. Changes in the levels of this second messenger in cells overexpressing proteins responsible for its synthesis or degradation did not affect PAPI-1 excision and maintenance. A decrease in PAPI-1 transfer frequency was detected when those cells were used as donors in conjugation, but this effect cannot be attributed to the altered c-di-GMP levels. In Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri 306 (XAC), an 86 kb genome region shares similarity with PAPI-1 regarding gene homology and organization. It also carries ORFs related to the core genes that define a syntenic family of genomic islands that includes PAPI-1. Nevertheless, the accessory genes dispersed among the clusters of conserved genes are not related, when comparing PAPI-1 and this region in XAC. An epissomal form of this putative XAC island could not be detected in the conditions tested in this work. Finally, in order to verify interactions involving the conserved proteins in PAPI-1 and XAC, two hybrid assays were carried out, but only false positives results were obtained

Die fünf CSS-Domänen Phosphodiesterasen aus Escherichia coli K12 (E. coli) gehören zu den weit verbreiteten c-di-GMP-PDEs. Ein Vertreter, PdeC, wurde bereits von Herbst et al. (2018) charakterisiert. Durch DsbA/DsbB geförderte Disulfidbrückenbindung (DSB) in der CSS-Domäne von PdeC wird die PDE-Aktivität des Proteins gehemmt. Gegenteilig ist die freie Thiolform, in Abhängigkeit von der TM2 als Dimerisierungs-Domäne, enzymatisch aktiver. Diese Form wird von den periplasmatischen Proteasen DegP und DegQ prozessiert. Ein irreversibel aktiviertes TM2+EAL-Fragment wird generiert, dass durch weitere Proteolyse langsam entfernt wird. Die Reduktion der CSS-Domäne von PdeC zur der freien Thiolform stimuliert die PDE-Aktivität der EAL-Domäne in vitro. Zusammen mit den Daten von Herbst et al. (2018) wird die CSS-Domäne in dieser Arbeit als eine neue sensorische Domäne charakterisiert, dessen Aktivität durch einen DSB/Thiol-Schaltmechanismus reguliert wird. Alle fünf CSS-Domänen-PDEs von E. coli K12 weisen eine ähnliche Domänenarchitektur auf, jedoch unterscheiden sich Redox-Biochemie, Proteolyse und PDE-Aktivität innerhalb dieser Proteinfamilie. Auf Basis der PDE-Aktivität von Nicht-DSB-Varianten wurden PdeB, PdeC und PdeG als aktivierbare (Reduktion steigert die PDE-Aktivität) und PdeD und PdeN als nicht aktivierbare (Reduktion inaktiviert PDEs) charakterisiert. Ein weiterer Vertreter de CSS-Domänen PDEs, PdeN, scheint nicht über die Ausbildung einer DSB in der CSS-Domäne reguliert und aktiviert zu werden. Nach erfolgter Proteinbiosynthese wird die Proteinkonzentration vielmehr über den N-Terminus reguliert, wobei saure Wachstumsbedingungen das Protein maßgeblich induzieren und die Aktivität erhöhen. Wird das Protein erfolgreich in die Membran eingelagert, kann es bedingt durch die strukturelle DSB seine PDE-Aktivität entfalten und die Biofilmmatrixproduktion maßgeblich beeinflussen. / The five CSS domain phosphodiesterases from Escherichia coli K12 (E. coli) belong to the widespread group of c-di-GMP PDEs. One representative, PdeC, has already been characterized by Herbst et al. (2018). DsbA/DsbB promoted disulfide bond (DSB) formation in the CSS domain of PdeC inhibits the PDE activity of the protein. On the contrary, the free thiol form is more enzymatically active, depending on the TM2 as the dimerization domain. This form is processed by the periplasmic proteases DegP and DegQ. An irreversibly activated TM2 + EAL fragment is generated that is slowly removed by further proteolysis. The reduction of the CSS domain of PdeC to the free thiol form stimulates the PDE activity of the EAL domain in vitro. Together with the data from Herbst et al. (2018) the CSS domain is characterized as a new sensory domain whose activity is regulated by a DSB / thiol switch mechanism. All five E. coli K12 CSS domain PDEs share a similar domain architecture, but redox biochemistry, proteolysis, and PDE activity differ within the protein family. On the basis of the PDE activity of non-DSB variants, PdeB, PdeC and PdeG were characterized as activatable (reduction increases PDE activity) and PdeD and PdeN as non-activatable (reduction inactivated PDE activity). Another representative of the CSS domain PDEs, PdeN, does not seem to be regulated and activated by forming a DSB in the CSS domain. After protein biosynthesis the protein concentration is rather regulated via the N-terminus, with acidic growth conditions significantly inducing the protein and increasing its activity. If the protein is successfully inserted in the membrane, it can develop its PDE activity due to the structural DSB and influence the biofilm matrix production significantly.

O pilus tipo IV (T4P) são finos e flexíveis filamentos encontrados na superfície de uma ampla gama de bactérias Gram-negativas, Gram-positivas e archaea. O T4P desempenha um rol crucial no estilo de vida bacteriano ao estar envolvido em uma variedade de funções incluindo motilidade, aderência, formação de biofilme, patogenicidade, transformação natural e na infecção por fagos. Várias das proteínas requeridas para a biossíntese e regulação do T4P se estendem através do periplasma conectado a membrana interna e externa. O T4P são estruturas dinâmicas que sofrem ciclos de extensão e retração energizados por duas ATPases associadas com a membrana interna bacteriana. Durante a extensão, PilB, a ATPase de biossíntese do T4P, estimula a polimerização do pilus a partir de monômeros de pilinas localizados na membrana interna, através de um mecanismo ainda desconhecido. Duas proteínas, FimX e PilZ estão envolvidas na regulação da biossíntese do T4P via interações com PilB e nocautes de esses genes acabam com a biogênese e função do T4P. Neste trabalho, nós determinamos a estrutura cristalográfica do complexo binário formado pelo domínio N-terminal de PilB (PilBNt, resíduos 12-163) e a PilZ com uma resolução de 1.7 Å. As interações entre PilB e PilZ envolve uma superfície hidrofóbica formada por aminoácidos altamente conservados na família não canônica de domínios PilZ. Mutações ou deleções de alguns destes resíduos em PilZ enfraquecem a interação PilB-PilZ e afeta a função do T4P. Nós também observamos que esta interação induz mudanças conformacionais no domínio PilBNt, revelando a possibilidade de um rearranjo estrutural funcionalmente relevante da região Nterminal de PilB permitindo a sua interação com PilM, conectando a ATPase PilB como a maquinaria do T4P. Nós mostramos que PilB, PilZ e FimX podem formar um complexo ternário estável com uma massa molar aparente de ~600 kDa, sugerindo uma estequiometria de 6PilB:6PilZ:2FimX. Também observamos que FimX incrementa a atividade ATPase do complexo PilB-PilZ. O c-di-GMP e o ATPγS (um análogo não hidrolisável do ATP) induz mudanças conformacionais em FimX e no complexo PilB-PilZ, respectivamente, e estabiliza o complexo ternário PilB-PilZ-FimX. Além disso, PilB, PilZ e FimX localizam em um dos polos da célula (polo líder) em células de X. citri e a localização polar dirige a orientação da motilidade twitching. Finalmente, o T4P é necessário para a exitosa infecção de X. citri pelo fago ΦXacm4-11. Nossos resultados sugerem que asinterações entre PilB-PilZ-FimX estariam envolvidas na regulação da função de PilB, onde sinais especificas sentidas pelos domínios de FimX seriam transmitidas por PilZ até PilB. / Bacterial type IV pili (T4P) are thin and flexible filaments found on the surface of a wide range of Gram-negative bacteria and play a crucial role in their lifestyles due to their involvement in a variety of functions including motility, adherence, biofilm formation, pathogenicity, natural transformation and phage infection. Several proteins required for the biogenesis and regulation of T4P span the periplasm connecting both the inner and outer membranes. T4P are dynamic structures that undergo cycles of extension and retraction powered by two hexameric ATPases associated with the bacterial inner membrane. During extensions, the T4P assembly ATPase PilB stimulates the polymerization of pilin monomers from the inner membrane, though the precise mechanism is unknown. Two proteins, FimX and PilZ are involved in the regulation of T4P biogenesis via interactions with the PilB and knockouts of these proteins abolish T4P biogenesis. Here, we determined the crystal structure of the binary complex made up of the PilB N-terminal domain (PilBNt, residues 12- 163) bound to PilZ at 1.7Å resolution. PilZ interactions with PilB involve a hydrophobic surface made up of amino acids conserved in a non-canonical family of PilZ domains. Mutations or deletion of some these amino acids in PilZ weaken the PilZ-PilB interaction and affect T4P function. This interaction induces significant conformational changes in the PilBNt domain, suggesting that structural rearrangements of the PilB N-terminal domains could be important for its interaction with PilM, connecting the ATPase PilB with T4P machinery. We show also that full-length PilB, PilZ and FimX can form a stable ternary complex with apparent molecular weight of ~600 kDa, suggestive of a 6PilB:6PilZ:2FimX stoichiometry and that FimX increases the ATPase activity of the PilB PilZ complex. C-diGMP and ATPγS (non-hydrolysable analog of ATP) induce conformational changes in FimX and in PilB-PilZ, respectively, and stabilize the ternary PilB-PilZ-FimX complex. In addition, we show that PilB, PilZ and FimX localize at one cell pole (leading pole) that drives the movement in X. citri. Finally, the T4P is necessary for successful infection of X. citri cells by phage ΦXacm4-11. Our results suggest how FimXPilZPilB interactions could be involved in the regulation of PilB function, where specific environmental signals sensed by FimX domains could be transmitted via PilZ to PilB.

Bacterial stationary phase is an interesting biological system to study, as the organism undergoes several metabolic changes during this period and new molecules are generated to support its survival. The stationary phase of mycobacteria has been extensively studied since the discovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis. The stationary phase of mycobacteria adds further complication as many antibacterial drugs become less effective. The M. tuberculosis infects the alveolar macrophages and dendritic cells or monocytes recruited from peripheral blood. Macrophages are supposed to provide an initial barrier against the bacterial infection, but fails. Mycobacteria have evolved several strategies to survive and set up an initial residence within these cells and grow actively inside the host. The host immune system tries to limit the bacterial growth and confines the organism to a latent state in which the organism can persist indefinitely, known as granuloma stage. During latency or granuloma stage mycobacteria can retain the ability to resume the growth in the future. Mycobacteria must adapt to a highly dynamic and challenging environment because the interior environment of granuloma is devoid of or in low level of oxygen, depleted nutrient, high carbon dioxide, and possess increased levels of aliphatic organic acids and hydrolytic enzymes. The survival of a bacterium in less nutrient supply or in depleted oxygen is important for its long-¬term persistence inside the host under harsh environmental conditions. Mycobacterium smegmatis is the closest non-¬pathogenic homologue of M. tuberculosis, and has been used widely as a model system to study gene regulation under such conditions. In these harsh environmental conditions bacteria need to sense the external environment to modulate their gene expression. More importantly, each individual cell should communicate with its neighbours, and the response takes place in a concerted manner, which is termed as quorum sensing. Thus, the quorum sensing is a cell-¬cell signaling process that allow the bacteria to monitor the presence of other bacteria in their surroundings by producing and responding to small signaling molecules, which are known as autoinducers. It is a density dependent phenomenon and regulates the expression of the genes in response to fluctuation in cell¬-population density. A minimum threshold level of autoinducers is necessary to detect the signal and respond to it. Quorum sensing enables bacteria to behave like multicellular organisms and controls group activities like biofilm formation, sporulation, bioluminescence, virulence, and pigment production, etc (Bassler, 1999; Camilli & Bassler, 2006; Fuqua et al., 1996; Miller & Bassler, 2001). In Gram-¬negative bacteria, small-¬molecules, which are known as autoinducers are produced. They are acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), which are derived from S¬adenosyl methionine (SAM) and particular fatty acyl carrier protein by LuxI¬type AHL synthases (Fuqua et al., 1996). In Gram-¬positive bacteria small peptides autoinducers, 5¬12 amino acids long, play an active role in communication. These oligopeptides are post--translationally modified by the incorporation of lactone and thiolactone rings, lanthionines and isoprenyl groups. These oligopeptide autoinducers are detected by membrane-¬bound two-¬component signaling proteins, and signal transduction occurs by a phosphorylation cascade (Camilli & Bassler, 2006; More et al., 1996; Novick, 2003; Zhang et al., 2002). In bacteria, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and guanosine pentaphosphate and/or tetraphosphate ((p)ppGpp) are well known second messengers, which play important role in relaying extracellular information, but recently cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-¬di¬-GMP) is being studied most comprehensively as a nucleotide-¬based second messenger. C-¬di¬-GMP was first discovered in Gluconacetobacter xylinus as a positive allosteric regulator of cellulose synthase (Ross et al., 1987; Tal et al., 1998; Weinhouse et al., 1997). The in vivo level of c-¬di-¬GMP in bacterial cell is maintained by the balance between diguanylate cyclase and phosphodiesterase activities. The GGDEF and EAL amino acids sequence are the signature motif for GGDEF and EAL domain protein within its active site, respectively. The GGDEF domain protein is involved in synthesis of c-¬di-¬GMP and the EAL domain protein is involved in the hydrolysis of c-¬di-¬GMP, and the majority of these proteins contain additional signal input domains (Paul et al., 2004; Ross et al., 1987; Ryjenkov et al., 2005; Tal et al., 1998). M. smegmatis has a single bi-¬functional protein having both the domains, GGDEF and EAL, for the diguanylate cyclase (DGC) and phosphodiesterase (PDE¬A) activities. In addition to GGDEF and EAL domain, one sensory domain, GAF, is also there at the N-terminal of MSMEG_2196 in M. smegmatis. In the present investigation, studies have been carried out to understand the regulation of c-¬di-¬GMP in M. smegmatis at protein and gene level. The entire study on mycobacterial MSMEG_2196 (msdgc¬1) can be broadly divided into five parts; the first part will cover the identification and biochemical characterization of MSDGC¬1 protein, responsible for the regulation of in vivo c-¬di-¬GMP concentration in M. smegmatis, and the presence of GGDEF¬EAL domain containing proteins in various mycobacterial species. The second part will cover the structure function relationship as a function of substrate, GTP and product, c-¬di-GMP, molecule using fluorescence spectroscopy as a tool, and the mutational and structural studies, which leads to the identification of a novel structural motif. The third part will cover the characterization of msdgc¬1 gene knockout and complementation studies in great detail. The fourth part will comprise in vivo and in vitro promoter characterization and regulation of the msdgc¬1 gene under nutritional starvation. The last chapter will cover the characterization of novel synthetic glycolipids, which are working as a growth and biofilm inhibitors in mycobacteria, and can be used as a new drug candidates. Chapter 1 outlines the signal transduction and quorum sensing mechanism, and small molecule signaling modules in brief. The importance of the study started with a brief introduction about the historical aspect of tuberculosis, the current scenario of the treatment of tuberculosis. The urgent need for new drug targets and drugs will be discussed. The important role of the novel second messenger, c-¬di¬-GMP has been explained in greater details in both Gram-¬positive and Gram-¬negative bacteria, and the information available on the different cellular targets has been documented. Chapter 2 describes the identification and biochemical characterization of M. smegmatis MSMEG_2196 protein. The domain architecture and individual domain role have been studied. The MSMEG_2196 proteins consist of three domains, GAF, GGDEF and EAL in tandem, and individual role of each domain has been studied. The diguanylate cyclases containing GGDEF and phosphodiesterases containing EAL domains have been identified as the enzymes involved in the regulation of in vivo cellular concentration of c-¬di-¬GMP. GAF domain has been identified as a metal binding domain in other bacteria and may be playing a role in the regulation of synthesis and hydrolysis activities of c-¬di¬-GMP. The identification, cloning expression and purification of MSMEG_2196 and MSMEG_2774 have been discussed. We have reported that mycobacterial MSDGC¬1 protein has dual activity, which means that it can synthesize and hydrolyse c¬-di-¬GMP; and also full-¬length protein is necessary for its either of the activities. The synthesis and hydrolysis products, c-¬di-¬GMP and pGpG, of MSDGC¬1 protein have been identified and characterized using radiolabelled alpha [α¬32P]GTP and Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI). The effects of temperature and pH on the activities of MSDGC¬1 have been studied. The circular dichroism studies show that the MSDGC¬1 protein is predominantly α¬helical in nature, and secondary structure does not alter upon GTP binding. The kinetic parameters for MSDGC¬1 protein have been calculated as a function of substrate, GTP. The protein, MSDGC¬1, exist as a monomer and a dimer in solution. The MSDGC¬1 protein has four cysteines, and we have shown here using mass spectrometric analysis that none of the cysteines is involved in the disulphide linkage. Chapter 3 deals with the structure-¬function relationship as a function of GTP and c¬-di-GMP molecules using fluorescence spectroscopy as a tool. In order to do so we have generated several cysteine mutants using site directed mutagenesis, and protein was labelled with thiol-¬specific fluorophores. The labelled protein was checked for its DGC and PDE¬A activities and specificity of labelling was confirmed using MALDI and radiometric analysis. The Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) has been carried out to observe domain-¬domain interaction as a function of GTP and c¬-di-¬GMP. The bioinformatics, structural, and mutational analysis suggest that cysteine at 579 position is important for DGC and PDE¬A activities, and may be involved in the formation of a novel structural motif, GCXXXQGF, which is necessary for synthesis and degradation of c-¬di-¬GMP. Chapter 4 describes the construction of a deletion mutation of MSMEG_2196 gene in M. smegmatis. The strategy for the construction of the knockout strain has been shown and confirmation of the knockout event has been carried out using PCR and Southern hybridization. The effect of deletion of msdgc¬1 has been studied in great detail, and it was noticed that biofilm formation is not affected, but long-¬term survival is significantly compromised. It is hypothesized here that c-¬di¬-GMP is involved in the regulation of cell population density in mycobacteria. We have successfully detected the c-¬di¬-GMP in the total nucleotide extract using HLPC coupled with MALDI, and we have shown here that level of c-¬di-¬GMP increases many fold in the stationary phase of growth under nutritional starvation. Chapter 5 deals with the identification and characterization of the promoter element of msdgc¬1 in M. smegmatis. The study was undertaken to understand the mechanism of regulation at promoter level. We have observed here that msdgc¬1 promoter is starvation induced, and expression of msdgc¬1 increases many fold in the stationary phase under nutritional starvation. We have also tried to establish the link between the ppGpp and c-di¬-GMP signalling, and possible role of c-¬di-¬GMP in the regulation of cell population density have been discussed. Further, the +1 transcription start site has been identified using primer extension method. The putative ¬10 hexamer region for the RNA polymerase binding has been identified and confirmed using site-¬directed mutagenesis. It was found to be TCGATA, which is 14 bp upstream from the +1 transcription start site. The msdgc-1 promoter is specific for mycobacteria and does not function in E. coli. Moreover, we have identified the sigma factors, which regulate the msdgc¬1 promoter in growth phase dependent manner. Chapter 6 begins with the screening of synthetic glycolipids as a novel drug candidate. The different glycolipids have been tested for their effect on growth, biofilm formation, and sliding motility of M. smegmatis, and we have screened few of them, which were found to be effective in inhibiting the microbial growth, biofilm formation, and sliding motility. Chapter 7 summarizes the work presented in this thesis. Appendix: The protein sequences of MSDGC¬1 and MSDGC¬2, and the multiple sequence alignments of MSDGC¬1 protein have been documented. The FORTRAN program, which was used to calculate spectral overlap integral J, and the diagrams of the plasmids used in this study have been provided.

The second messenger cyclic diguanylate monophosphate (c-di-GMP) has been proven to be a central regulator for physiological and metabolic processes including biofilm formation and sessile to motile transitioning (1,2). The synthesis and degradation of c-di-GMP are regulated by GGDEF- respectively EAL-domain proteins. Recently, c-di-GMP has been discovered in the Gram-positive Streptococcus genus including Streptococcus gallolyticus, which showed to have diguanylate cyclase activity (3). Characterisation of the c-di-GMP network in other Streptococcus is of relevance. Hence, the aim of this project was the assessment of the GGDEF- and EAL domains from the animal pathogenic Streptococcus uberis and Streptococcus henryi. In vivo recombination cloning was used for the analysis of the GGDEF, EAL and GGDEF-EAL domain proteins from S. uberis and S. henryi. The cloning was unsuccessful for most of the domain proteins, except, for EAL 2 of S. uberis. However, analysis of the sequencing results for the cloned EAL 2 presented mutations. Further studies testing alternative cloning methods should be applied. Research regarding probiotic streptococci is also of interest. Therefore, isolation of Streptococcus salivarius from human oral samples using Streptococcus Selection Agar was conducted. Isolation of S. salivarius from human saliva and tongue samples was successful using Streptococcus Selection Agar. Other Streptococcus spp., Lactobacillus, Staphylococcus, and additional bacterial species were also isolated.