O Brasil é um dos países com o maior número de transferências de embriões de equinos do mundo, mas as éguas receptoras são escassas e caras. Uma alternativa é usar mulas acíclicas como receptoras de embriões equinos. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar pela primeira vez o desenvolvimento embrionário e fetal precoce em mulas e éguas receptoras do 10º ao 60º dia de gestação. Este estudo foi realizado na Fazenda Experimental Gralha Azul da Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná. Cinco éguas de doadores de embriões com idades entre 4 e 10 anos foram utilizadas. Foram utilizados dois grupos de receptores: 10 éguas cíclicas com idades entre 4 e 15 anos (grupo controle) e 7 mulas acíclicas com idades entre 6 e 12 anos. Os animais foram mantidos em piquetes e/ou estábulos e tiveram acesso a água e sal mineral ad libitum, bem como a uma fonte de volumoso e concentrado. As éguas doadoras foram monitoradas diariamente por ultrassonografia transretal (transdutor linear de 5 MHz, A6V Sonoscape, China) após o início do estro. As éguas foram inseminadas artificialmente usando sêmen fresco de um garanhão com fertilidade comprovada. A coleta de embriões das éguas foi realizada 8 dias após a ovulação. Antes da transferência do embrião, as éguas receptoras cíclicas eram examinadas diariamente por ultrassonografia para usar a melhor sincronia com a ovulação da doadora. As mulas acíclicas foram preparadas antes da transferência do embrião com a administração de 17 beta-estradiol (10 mg/mL, 1 mL, im) no dia da ovulação da doadora, e após 2 dias quando a presença de edema uterino foi confirmada, com a administração de Altrenogest (60 mg/mL, 5 mL, im). O diagnóstico de gestação foi realizado por ultrassonografia, 10 dias após a ovulação da doadora. Quando o diagnóstico foi confirmado, a avaliação ultrassonográfica foi realizada diariamente até o 60º dia de gestação. O primeiro dia de detecção da vesícula embrionária foi o Dia 10 por ultrassonografia em ambas as espécies e Dia 20,9 ± 1,3 (Média ± DP) e 21,9 ± 0,9 por palpação transretal em mulas e éguas respectivamente. A fixação da vesícula ocorreu em média no dia 15,7 ± 1,1 em mulas e 16,6 ± 1,7 em éguas. O embrião propriamente dito foi detectado pela primeira vez em mulas (no dia 19,9 ± 1,1) em comparação com as éguas (20,4 ± 1,3). O batimento cardíaco foi observado posteriormente em muares (23,4 ± 1,4) do que em éguas (22,6 ± 0,8). O saco alantóide foi detectado pela primeira vez entre os dias 23 e 26 (25,3 ± 1,1 e 24,6 ± 1,0 em mulas e éguas, respectivamente) e o cordão umbilical foi detectado pela primeira vez no dia 39 (39,7 ± 2,1 x 39,6 ± 1,5 em mulas e éguas, respectivamente). Os diâmetros ovarianos para os ovários esquerdo e direito foram semelhantes para as mulas (21,4 ± 0,4 vs. 21,8 ± 0,4 mm) e para as éguas (45,1 ± 0,4 vs 46,0 ± 0,4). Entretanto, o diâmetro ovariano das éguas (45,5 ± 0,3 mm) foi duas vezes maior (P <0,0001) que as mulas (21,6 ± 0,3 mm). Apenas duas mulas apresentaram o CL acessório que foi observado pela primeira vez nos dias 49 e 51. Dentro dos grupos não houve diferenças entre os cornos esquerdo e direito, gravídicos e não-gravídicos. A média geral não foi diferente entre as mulas (24,6 ± 3,1 mm) e as éguas (25,4 ± 0,1 mm). Como conclusão, de acordo com o nosso conhecimento, este é o primeiro estudo comparativo sobre desenvolvimento embrionário e fetal precoce entre mulas acíclicas e éguas receptoras de embriões equinos. Numerosas semelhanças foram encontradas nos aspectos estudados. Tais achados, associados ao fato de que potros vivos e sadios foram produzidos, sugerem que o uso de mulas acíclicas pode ser considerado como uma alternativa para aumentar a disponibilidade de receptoras em programas equinos de TE. / Brazil is one of the countries with the largest number of equine embryo transfers in the world, but recipients mares are scarce and expensive. One alternative is to use acyclic mules as recipients for equine embryos. The aim of this study was to compare for the first time the embryonic and early fetal development in recipient mules and mares from day 10 to 60 of pregnancy. This study was conducted at the Experimental Farm Gralha Azul of the Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná. Five embryo donor mares aged 4 to 10 years were used. Two groups of recipients were used: 10 cyclic mares aged 4 to 15 years (control group), and 7 acyclic mules aged 6 to 12 years. Animals were kept in paddocks and/or stables and had access to water and mineral salt ad libitum, as well as to a source of roughage and concentrate. Donor mares were monitored daily by transrectal ultrasonography (5-MHz linear transducer, A6V Sonoscape, China) after the beginning of estrus. The mares were artificially inseminated using fresh semen from a stallion with proven fertility. Embryo collection from the mares was performed 8 days after ovulation. Before embryo transfer, cyclic recipient mares were examined daily by ultrasonography to use the most synchronous with the donor's ovulation and have not received any hormonal treatment. The acyclic mules were prepared before the embryo transfer with the administration of 17 beta-estradiol (10 mg/mL, 1 mL, i.m.) on the day of the donor's ovulation, and after 2 days when the presence of uterine edema was confirmed, with the administration of Altrenogest (60 mg/mL, 5 mL, i.m.). The pregnancy diagnosis was carried out by ultrasonography 10 days after ovulation in the donor. When the diagnosis was confirmed, ultrasonographic assessment was carried out daily until day 60 of pregnancy. The first day of detection of an embryonic vesicle was Day 10 by ultrasound in both species and day 20.9 ± 1.3 (Mean ±SD), and 21.9 ± 0.9 by transrectal palpation in mules and mares respectively. Fixation of the vesicle occurred on mean day 15.7 ± 1.1 in mules and 16.6 ± 1.7 in mares. The embryo proper was first detected in mules (on day 19.9 ± 1.1) compared to mares (20.4 ± 1.3) The heart beat was observed later in mules (23.4 ± 1.4) than in mares (22.6 ± 0.8). The allantoic sac was first detected between days 23 and 26 (25.3 ± 1.1 and 24.6 ± 1.0 in mules and mares, respectively) and the umbilical cord was first detected on day 39 (39.7 ± 2.1 x 39.6 ± 1.5 in mules and mares, respectively). The ovarian diameters for left and right ovaries were similar for mules (21.4 ± 0.4 vs. 21.8 ± 0.4 mm) and for mares (45.1 ± 0.4 vs. 46.0 ± 0.4). However, the ovarian diameter of the mares (45.5 ± 0.3 mm) was two times larger (P<0.0001) than the mules (21.6 ± 0.3 mm). Within groups there were no differences between left and right and gravid and non-gravid horns. Data were combined for comparison of the endometrial diameter between mules and mares. The overall mean was not different between mules (24.6 3.1 ± 0.1 mm) and mares (25.4 ± 0.1 mm). However, day (P<0.003) and group-by-day (P<0.0001) effects were detected. Only two mules presented accessory CL that was observed for the first time on days 49 e 51. In conclusion, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first comparative study on embryo and early fetal development between noncycling mules and mares used as ET recipients of horse-horse embryos. Numerous similarities in embryo and early fetal development, and endocrinology aspects were seen. The findings of this study in mules, associated with the fact that alive and healthy offspring were produced, the use of mules may be considered as an alternative to increase the availability of recipients in equine ET programs.

A detomidina é um agonistas α2 adrenérgicos amplamente empregado para sedação, analgesia e medicação pré-anestésica em equinos. A ativação dos receptores α2 distribuídos no Sistema Nervoso Central e Periférico provoca uma série de alterações fisiológicas, tais como bradicardia, bloqueio átrio-ventricular, diminuição do débito cardíaco, bradipnéia, inibição da secreção de insulina, hiperglicemia, diminuição da motilidade gastrointestinal, relaxamento da musculatura esquelética, diminuição da secreção de ACTH e ADH, hipnose e sedação. Para investigar a interferência da detomidina sobre alguns parâmetros fisiológicos e metabólicos, seis equinos foram mantidos em estação e submetidos a uma hora de infusão contínua de detomidina na dose de 20 μg.kg-1.h-1 , servindo como seus próprios controles. Foram avaliados frequência cardíaca (FC), frequência respiratória (FR), pressão arterial média (PAM), pressão arterial sistólica (PAS), pressão arterial diastólica (PAD), tempo de preenchimento capilar (TPC), temperatura retal (TR), hemogasometria sanguínea, glicose e lactato plasmáticos, insulina sérica, proteína plasmática total (PPT), hematócrito (Ht), hemoblobina (Hb), saturação de oxigênio (SO2), bicarbonato, sódio, potássio, e cálcio ionizado sanguíneos, glicogênio e lactato muscular e realizada urinálise, antes da infusão contínua de detomidina (T0), 20 minutos após (T20), 40 minutos após (T40) e 60 minutos após (T60), quando a infusão foi descontinuada. Uma hora após o término da infusão, foi realizada uma última coleta (T120). As variáveis foram submetidas à ANOVA, teste t de Student, teste de Tukey e teste de Friedman de acordo com o tipo de variável com nível de confiança de 95%. Os resultados indicaram diminuição estatisticamente significativa da FC, FR, Ht, Hb, cálcio ionizado e glicogênio muscular, além de aumento significativo da glicose, lactato e bicarbonato sanguíneos. Não houve diferença estatística significativa nas variáveis TPC, TR, PAM, PAS, PAD, PaO2, PaCO2, pH arterial, SO2, insulina sérica, PPT, lactato muscular e variáveis urinárias. A utilização de uma infusão contínua de detomidina na dose preconizada neste estudo promoveu um período de sedação prolongada em equinos em estação, com ocorrência de efeitos adversos moderados e sem significância clínica em animais hígidos. A hipoinsulinemia provocada por esta droga de fato influencia o metabolismo energético através da mobilização de reservas observada e do aumento de lactato sérico. / The detomidine is an α2 adrenergic agonist widely used for sedation, analgesia and premedication in horses. The activation of α2 receptors distributed in Central and Peripheral Nervous System causes a series of changes, such as bradycardia, atrioventricular block, decreased cardiac output, bradypnea, inhibition of insulin secretion, hyperglycemia, decreased gastrointestinal motility, relaxation of skeletal muscle, decreased secretion of ACTH and ADH, hypnosis and sedation. To investigate the interference of detomidine on some physiological and metabolic parameters, six horses were subjected to one hour of continuous rate infusion of detomidine at a dose of 20 μg.kg-1.h-1 and served as their own controls. We assessed heart rate (FC), respiratory rate (FR), mean arterial pressure (PAM), systolic blood pressure (PAS), diastolic blood pressure (PAD), capillary refill time (TPC), rectal temperature (TR), blood gases, blood glucose, plasma lactate, serum insulin, total plasma protein (PPT), hematocrit (Ht), hemoblobin (Hb), oxygen saturation (SO2), bicarbonate, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, muscle glycogen and muscle lactate, and urinalysis performed before the infusion of detomidine (T0), after 20 minutes (T20), 40 minutes after (T40) and 60 minutes after (T60), when the infusion was discontinued. One hour after the infusion was performed a last collection (T120). The variables were submitted to ANOVA, Student's t test, Tukey’s test and Friedman’s test according to the type of variable with a confidence level of 95%. The continuous rate infusion of detomidine resulted in a significant decrease in FC, FR, Ht, Hb, ionized calcium and muscle glycogen, and a significant increase in glucose, plasma lactate and bicarbonate. There was no statistically significant difference in the variables TPC, TR, PAM, PAS, PAD, blood gases, serum insulin, PPT, muscle lactate and urinary variables. The use of a continuous rate infusion of detomidina in the recommended dose in this study promoted a prolonged sedation, with moderate adverse effects with no clinical significance in healthy animals. The hypoinsulinemia caused by this drug did influence energetic metabolism through the mobilization of reserves and the observed increase in plasma lactate.

O Brasil é um dos países com o maior número de transferências de embriões de equinos do mundo, mas as éguas receptoras são escassas e caras. Uma alternativa é usar mulas acíclicas como receptoras de embriões equinos. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar pela primeira vez o desenvolvimento embrionário e fetal precoce em mulas e éguas receptoras do 10º ao 60º dia de gestação. Este estudo foi realizado na Fazenda Experimental Gralha Azul da Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná. Cinco éguas de doadores de embriões com idades entre 4 e 10 anos foram utilizadas. Foram utilizados dois grupos de receptores: 10 éguas cíclicas com idades entre 4 e 15 anos (grupo controle) e 7 mulas acíclicas com idades entre 6 e 12 anos. Os animais foram mantidos em piquetes e/ou estábulos e tiveram acesso a água e sal mineral ad libitum, bem como a uma fonte de volumoso e concentrado. As éguas doadoras foram monitoradas diariamente por ultrassonografia transretal (transdutor linear de 5 MHz, A6V Sonoscape, China) após o início do estro. As éguas foram inseminadas artificialmente usando sêmen fresco de um garanhão com fertilidade comprovada. A coleta de embriões das éguas foi realizada 8 dias após a ovulação. Antes da transferência do embrião, as éguas receptoras cíclicas eram examinadas diariamente por ultrassonografia para usar a melhor sincronia com a ovulação da doadora. As mulas acíclicas foram preparadas antes da transferência do embrião com a administração de 17 beta-estradiol (10 mg/mL, 1 mL, im) no dia da ovulação da doadora, e após 2 dias quando a presença de edema uterino foi confirmada, com a administração de Altrenogest (60 mg/mL, 5 mL, im). O diagnóstico de gestação foi realizado por ultrassonografia, 10 dias após a ovulação da doadora. Quando o diagnóstico foi confirmado, a avaliação ultrassonográfica foi realizada diariamente até o 60º dia de gestação. O primeiro dia de detecção da vesícula embrionária foi o Dia 10 por ultrassonografia em ambas as espécies e Dia 20,9 ± 1,3 (Média ± DP) e 21,9 ± 0,9 por palpação transretal em mulas e éguas respectivamente. A fixação da vesícula ocorreu em média no dia 15,7 ± 1,1 em mulas e 16,6 ± 1,7 em éguas. O embrião propriamente dito foi detectado pela primeira vez em mulas (no dia 19,9 ± 1,1) em comparação com as éguas (20,4 ± 1,3). O batimento cardíaco foi observado posteriormente em muares (23,4 ± 1,4) do que em éguas (22,6 ± 0,8). O saco alantóide foi detectado pela primeira vez entre os dias 23 e 26 (25,3 ± 1,1 e 24,6 ± 1,0 em mulas e éguas, respectivamente) e o cordão umbilical foi detectado pela primeira vez no dia 39 (39,7 ± 2,1 x 39,6 ± 1,5 em mulas e éguas, respectivamente). Os diâmetros ovarianos para os ovários esquerdo e direito foram semelhantes para as mulas (21,4 ± 0,4 vs. 21,8 ± 0,4 mm) e para as éguas (45,1 ± 0,4 vs 46,0 ± 0,4). Entretanto, o diâmetro ovariano das éguas (45,5 ± 0,3 mm) foi duas vezes maior (P <0,0001) que as mulas (21,6 ± 0,3 mm). Apenas duas mulas apresentaram o CL acessório que foi observado pela primeira vez nos dias 49 e 51. Dentro dos grupos não houve diferenças entre os cornos esquerdo e direito, gravídicos e não-gravídicos. A média geral não foi diferente entre as mulas (24,6 ± 3,1 mm) e as éguas (25,4 ± 0,1 mm). Como conclusão, de acordo com o nosso conhecimento, este é o primeiro estudo comparativo sobre desenvolvimento embrionário e fetal precoce entre mulas acíclicas e éguas receptoras de embriões equinos. Numerosas semelhanças foram encontradas nos aspectos estudados. Tais achados, associados ao fato de que potros vivos e sadios foram produzidos, sugerem que o uso de mulas acíclicas pode ser considerado como uma alternativa para aumentar a disponibilidade de receptoras em programas equinos de TE. / Brazil is one of the countries with the largest number of equine embryo transfers in the world, but recipients mares are scarce and expensive. One alternative is to use acyclic mules as recipients for equine embryos. The aim of this study was to compare for the first time the embryonic and early fetal development in recipient mules and mares from day 10 to 60 of pregnancy. This study was conducted at the Experimental Farm Gralha Azul of the Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná. Five embryo donor mares aged 4 to 10 years were used. Two groups of recipients were used: 10 cyclic mares aged 4 to 15 years (control group), and 7 acyclic mules aged 6 to 12 years. Animals were kept in paddocks and/or stables and had access to water and mineral salt ad libitum, as well as to a source of roughage and concentrate. Donor mares were monitored daily by transrectal ultrasonography (5-MHz linear transducer, A6V Sonoscape, China) after the beginning of estrus. The mares were artificially inseminated using fresh semen from a stallion with proven fertility. Embryo collection from the mares was performed 8 days after ovulation. Before embryo transfer, cyclic recipient mares were examined daily by ultrasonography to use the most synchronous with the donor's ovulation and have not received any hormonal treatment. The acyclic mules were prepared before the embryo transfer with the administration of 17 beta-estradiol (10 mg/mL, 1 mL, i.m.) on the day of the donor's ovulation, and after 2 days when the presence of uterine edema was confirmed, with the administration of Altrenogest (60 mg/mL, 5 mL, i.m.). The pregnancy diagnosis was carried out by ultrasonography 10 days after ovulation in the donor. When the diagnosis was confirmed, ultrasonographic assessment was carried out daily until day 60 of pregnancy. The first day of detection of an embryonic vesicle was Day 10 by ultrasound in both species and day 20.9 ± 1.3 (Mean ±SD), and 21.9 ± 0.9 by transrectal palpation in mules and mares respectively. Fixation of the vesicle occurred on mean day 15.7 ± 1.1 in mules and 16.6 ± 1.7 in mares. The embryo proper was first detected in mules (on day 19.9 ± 1.1) compared to mares (20.4 ± 1.3) The heart beat was observed later in mules (23.4 ± 1.4) than in mares (22.6 ± 0.8). The allantoic sac was first detected between days 23 and 26 (25.3 ± 1.1 and 24.6 ± 1.0 in mules and mares, respectively) and the umbilical cord was first detected on day 39 (39.7 ± 2.1 x 39.6 ± 1.5 in mules and mares, respectively). The ovarian diameters for left and right ovaries were similar for mules (21.4 ± 0.4 vs. 21.8 ± 0.4 mm) and for mares (45.1 ± 0.4 vs. 46.0 ± 0.4). However, the ovarian diameter of the mares (45.5 ± 0.3 mm) was two times larger (P<0.0001) than the mules (21.6 ± 0.3 mm). Within groups there were no differences between left and right and gravid and non-gravid horns. Data were combined for comparison of the endometrial diameter between mules and mares. The overall mean was not different between mules (24.6 3.1 ± 0.1 mm) and mares (25.4 ± 0.1 mm). However, day (P<0.003) and group-by-day (P<0.0001) effects were detected. Only two mules presented accessory CL that was observed for the first time on days 49 e 51. In conclusion, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first comparative study on embryo and early fetal development between noncycling mules and mares used as ET recipients of horse-horse embryos. Numerous similarities in embryo and early fetal development, and endocrinology aspects were seen. The findings of this study in mules, associated with the fact that alive and healthy offspring were produced, the use of mules may be considered as an alternative to increase the availability of recipients in equine ET programs.

A detomidina é um agonistas α2 adrenérgicos amplamente empregado para sedação, analgesia e medicação pré-anestésica em equinos. A ativação dos receptores α2 distribuídos no Sistema Nervoso Central e Periférico provoca uma série de alterações fisiológicas, tais como bradicardia, bloqueio átrio-ventricular, diminuição do débito cardíaco, bradipnéia, inibição da secreção de insulina, hiperglicemia, diminuição da motilidade gastrointestinal, relaxamento da musculatura esquelética, diminuição da secreção de ACTH e ADH, hipnose e sedação. Para investigar a interferência da detomidina sobre alguns parâmetros fisiológicos e metabólicos, seis equinos foram mantidos em estação e submetidos a uma hora de infusão contínua de detomidina na dose de 20 μg.kg-1.h-1 , servindo como seus próprios controles. Foram avaliados frequência cardíaca (FC), frequência respiratória (FR), pressão arterial média (PAM), pressão arterial sistólica (PAS), pressão arterial diastólica (PAD), tempo de preenchimento capilar (TPC), temperatura retal (TR), hemogasometria sanguínea, glicose e lactato plasmáticos, insulina sérica, proteína plasmática total (PPT), hematócrito (Ht), hemoblobina (Hb), saturação de oxigênio (SO2), bicarbonato, sódio, potássio, e cálcio ionizado sanguíneos, glicogênio e lactato muscular e realizada urinálise, antes da infusão contínua de detomidina (T0), 20 minutos após (T20), 40 minutos após (T40) e 60 minutos após (T60), quando a infusão foi descontinuada. Uma hora após o término da infusão, foi realizada uma última coleta (T120). As variáveis foram submetidas à ANOVA, teste t de Student, teste de Tukey e teste de Friedman de acordo com o tipo de variável com nível de confiança de 95%. Os resultados indicaram diminuição estatisticamente significativa da FC, FR, Ht, Hb, cálcio ionizado e glicogênio muscular, além de aumento significativo da glicose, lactato e bicarbonato sanguíneos. Não houve diferença estatística significativa nas variáveis TPC, TR, PAM, PAS, PAD, PaO2, PaCO2, pH arterial, SO2, insulina sérica, PPT, lactato muscular e variáveis urinárias. A utilização de uma infusão contínua de detomidina na dose preconizada neste estudo promoveu um período de sedação prolongada em equinos em estação, com ocorrência de efeitos adversos moderados e sem significância clínica em animais hígidos. A hipoinsulinemia provocada por esta droga de fato influencia o metabolismo energético através da mobilização de reservas observada e do aumento de lactato sérico. / The detomidine is an α2 adrenergic agonist widely used for sedation, analgesia and premedication in horses. The activation of α2 receptors distributed in Central and Peripheral Nervous System causes a series of changes, such as bradycardia, atrioventricular block, decreased cardiac output, bradypnea, inhibition of insulin secretion, hyperglycemia, decreased gastrointestinal motility, relaxation of skeletal muscle, decreased secretion of ACTH and ADH, hypnosis and sedation. To investigate the interference of detomidine on some physiological and metabolic parameters, six horses were subjected to one hour of continuous rate infusion of detomidine at a dose of 20 μg.kg-1.h-1 and served as their own controls. We assessed heart rate (FC), respiratory rate (FR), mean arterial pressure (PAM), systolic blood pressure (PAS), diastolic blood pressure (PAD), capillary refill time (TPC), rectal temperature (TR), blood gases, blood glucose, plasma lactate, serum insulin, total plasma protein (PPT), hematocrit (Ht), hemoblobin (Hb), oxygen saturation (SO2), bicarbonate, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, muscle glycogen and muscle lactate, and urinalysis performed before the infusion of detomidine (T0), after 20 minutes (T20), 40 minutes after (T40) and 60 minutes after (T60), when the infusion was discontinued. One hour after the infusion was performed a last collection (T120). The variables were submitted to ANOVA, Student's t test, Tukey’s test and Friedman’s test according to the type of variable with a confidence level of 95%. The continuous rate infusion of detomidine resulted in a significant decrease in FC, FR, Ht, Hb, ionized calcium and muscle glycogen, and a significant increase in glucose, plasma lactate and bicarbonate. There was no statistically significant difference in the variables TPC, TR, PAM, PAS, PAD, blood gases, serum insulin, PPT, muscle lactate and urinary variables. The use of a continuous rate infusion of detomidina in the recommended dose in this study promoted a prolonged sedation, with moderate adverse effects with no clinical significance in healthy animals. The hypoinsulinemia caused by this drug did influence energetic metabolism through the mobilization of reserves and the observed increase in plasma lactate.

Equidae belong to a group of large herbivores, which survival in natural environment depends beside others on their capability of fast predator recognition and detection. They can sensually recognise a possible threat in advance and react by immediate escape, which increases their survival. Also domestic horses still show very sensitive reaction to sudden (unexpected) stimuli. So we assume, that the ability to detect predator immediately is conserved despite of the long domestication process. The supportive indirect evidence is given by the successful breeding of the feral herds all over the world. However, studies showing the direct reaction of domestic horse toward the canids (as the most common predators), are still absent. Aim of the work was to find, if the horses (Equus caballus) could recognize acoustic sign of dogs like predators and if they could recognize the level of potential threat according to the number of predators, similarly as their wild ancestors. The recordings of barking of big dog breeds were obtained and modified. The final recording contained the set of barking coming from one individual or three different. The recording was played to the experimental horses, under controled conditions, together with white sound as a control. The reactions were recorded. Altogether 12 horses out of...

Equidae belong to a group of large herbivores, which survival in natural environment depends beside others on their capability of fast predator recognition and detection. They can sensually recognise a possible threat in advance and react by immediate escape, which increases their survival. Also domestic horses still show very sensitive reaction to sudden (unexpected) stimuli. So we assume, that the ability to detect predator immediately is conserved despite of the long domestication process. The supportive indirect evidence is given by the successful breeding of the feral herds all over the world. However, studies showing the direct reaction of domestic horse toward the canids (as the most common predators), are still absent. Aim of the work was to find, if the horses (Equus caballus) could recognize acoustic sign of dogs like predators and if they could recognize the level of potential threat according to the number of predators, similarly as their wild ancestors. The recordings of barking of big dog breeds were obtained and modified. The final recording contained the set of barking coming from one individual or three different. The recording was played to the experimental horses, under controlled conditions, together with white sound as a control. The reactions were recorded. Altogether 12...

Lateralized behaviour is the most conspicuous manifestation of hemispheric specialization of the brain and has been reported in a variety of taxa. Only a few studies have so far assessed lateralized behaviours in horses. Therefore, I observed ten domestic horses for 16 weeks for an array of spontaneously occurring motor behaviours as well as stimulus-induced behavioural responses to determine if they display side preferences at the individual or population level and to assess possible correlations between lateralized behaviours. Significant side preferences were found for certain behaviours at the individual level, ranging from standing and flexing, to auditory stimuli, and olfactory stimuli. All horses showed task-dependent changes in their side preferences and no significant side preferences were found at the population level for any behaviours. Similarly, no significant correlations were found between behaviours. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that horses, like all other species studied so far except humans and some great apes, only display lateralized behaviour at the individual, but not at the population level.

Estimating nutrient and energy requirements of exotic animals is a necessary component of nutrition management in zoos and other wildlife facilities. In the absence of species-specific data, domestic animal models are often referenced. Herbivorous hindgut fermenters, such as horses, zebra, and rhinoceros, rely on microbial fermentation in the cecum and colon to utilize dietary structural carbohydrates. The study objective was to measure the digestible energy of two (LOW, HIGH) complete pelleted diets by the horse as a model for nondomestic hindgut fermenters. Seven, individually housed, adult Quarter Horse (Equus caballus) geldings were assigned to one of two diets as 100% of intake in a randomized crossover design. Experimental diets both contained similar ingredients including soybean oil as an added source of supplemental fat (LOW 1.7%, HIGH 6.9%). Diets differed in predicted digestible energy (LOW 2.29 Mcal/kg, HIGH 2.85 Mcal/kg, DE), ether extract (LOW 4.00%, HIGH 7.41%, EE), and acid detergent fiber (LOW 33.7%, HIGH 26.2%, ADF). Daily feed quantities were offered at 33.3 kcal DE BWkg-1 equally distributed over three meals to maintain target BW. Daily feed intake was quantified. Horses had ab libitum access to water. Horses were transitioned from all forage to 100% test diet over 14 d, acclimated to the test feed for 19 d prior to 4 d acclimation and 6 d total fecal collection using hygiene collection harnesses (Equi-San Marketing Pty Ltd). Diet transition between periods occurred over 8 d. Total fecal output was quantified every 8 h, thoroughly mixed and 10% of measured mass output was subsampled for further analysis. Body weights (BW) recorded weekly did not change significantly throughout the trial (P = 0.420). Apparent digestibility of diet within horse and day was evaluated by a nested ANOVA (Minitab 16). The apparent digestibility of EE (P < 0.000), neutral detergent fiber (P = 0.008), and ADF (P = 0.002) differed between the two diets. Apparent digestibility of DM (P = 0.137), OM (P = 0.140), and GE (P = 0.418) were not different. Excess fat not digested and absorbed in the small intestine (by-pass fat) will enter the hindgut and may cause disruption of normal microbial activity. Additionally soybean oil, when consumed in quantities that allow by-pass to occur, has been shown to have a negative effect on fiber digestibility in hindgut fermenters. A negative effect on fiber digestibility in the higher fat diet could result in diets closer in DM, OM, and GE digestibility than initially predicted. The NRC (2007) recommends that no more than 0.7 g/kg BW/d of soybean oil be fed to the horse. The HIGH diet provided 0.91 g/kg BW/d soybean oil. Feeds that contain concentrations higher than recommended may not be appropriate as the sole dietary ingredient of hindgut fermenters. Further studies are needed to evaluate the use of soybean oil and to determine the threshold at which soybean oil will begin to suppress hindgut fiber digestion. In vivo measurements of digestibility in model species may provide useful benchmarks from which diets for nondomestic hindgut fermenters, as well as horses, may be formulated.

Dwarfism is considered one of the most recognized congenital defects of animals and humans and can be hereditary or sporadic in cause and expression. There are two general morphologic categories within this vastly diverse disease. These categories are disproportionate and proportionate dwarfism and within each of these there are numerous phenotypes which have been extensively described in humans, and to a lesser extent in dogs, cattle, mice, chickens, and other domestic species. Ponies and Miniature horses largely differ from full size horses only by their stature. Ponies are often defined as those whose height is not greater than 14.2 hands; however the maximum height for Miniature horses is constitutionally defined as 8.2 hands. Dwarfism is not considered a desirable genetic trait for Miniature horses. A majority of these conformationally inferior horses showed consistent physical abnormalities typical of disproportionate dwarfisms as seen in other mammal species. A whole genome scan with the Illumina Equine SNP50 chip clearly implicated a region on ECA1 as being associated with dwarfism of horses. The region implicated on the horse chromosome 1 (Equus Caballus; ECA1) contained a candidate gene for dwarfism, aggrecan (ACAN). Mutations were found in Exons 2, 6, 11 and 15 with each mutation associated with a distinct type of dwarfism. These mutations are independently transmitted throughout the population. Absence of normal homozygotes for these mutations and absence of normal horses which were heterozygous for these mutations indicated that these alleles caused dwarfism in those genotypes. These genotypes did not explain all observed dwarves in this population.

Body size is an important determinant of reproduction in capital breeding animals, including large mammals. However, it is not always practical to hand-measure body size of free-ranging species. In recent years, parallel-laser photogrammetry has been used to obtain remote estimates of body size for some animals, though it remains unknown how well this technique might capture variation in curvilinear body features or if the distance between parallel-laser calipers is altered when projected onto a curved surface. In this thesis, I describe a photogrammetric system that may be useful for obtaining body-size measurements from unrestrained large mammals that permit approach, using domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus) as a model (Chapter 2). I then apply this technique in the field to a wild (feral) population of horses at Sable Island National Park Reserve, Nova Scotia, Canada, where I include body size measurements as variables in a detailed analysis of factors affecting reproduction in females (Chapter 3). Using my parallel-laser photogrammetric system, I show how curvilinear hand-measurements (e.g., across the barrel of a horse) are stongly correlated with their respective linear photogrammetric estimates (R2 ≥ 0.998), and most photogrammetric estimates using my system had high reliability. Using three variables of body size, photogrammetric estimates and hand-measurements explained 86.0% and 96.2%, respectively, of the variation in body weight of a sample of domestic Newfoundland ponies. On Sable Island, Nova Scotia, I examined the relationship of numerous variables (including skeletal body size and body condition) with the probability of yearly reproductive success for female Sable Island horses (years 2008–2012), where I define reproductive success as production of an offspring surviving to one year of age. Age class was a dominant factor predicting reproductive success, as expected from trends previously associated with body size or reproductive experience iii in other populations. Age-class specific energy budgets or social and sexual behaviour caused a more pronounced relationship with body condition at parturition in sub-adults, and body condition at conception and stability of consort relationships were associated with reproductive success in adults. In addition, relationships with local density suggested limited forage around the time of conception and limited water during lactation might also influence reproductive success in adult females. Although relationships were evident for age class, which is correlated with body size, reproductive success was not related to skeletal body size, past reproductive experience, age of primiparity, or band structure. The capital breeding strategy and year-round social associations seen in horses make their reproductive ecology a combination of patterns observed for large ungulates and social primates.